Editing Tertullian (section)

== Writings ==

=== General character ===
Thirty-one works are extant, together with fragments of more. Some fifteen works in Latin or Greek are lost, some as recently as the 9th century (''De Paradiso, De superstitione saeculi, De carne et anima'' were all extant in the now damaged [[Codex Agobardinus]] in 814 AD). Tertullian's writings cover the whole theological field of the time—[[apologetics]] against paganism and Judaism, [[polemic]]s, polity, discipline, and morals, or the whole reorganization of human life on a Christian basis; they gave a picture of the religious life and thought of the time which is of great interest to the church historian.

Like other early [[Christianity|Christian]] writers Tertullian used the term ''paganus'' to mean "civilian" as a contrast to the "soldiers of Christ". The motif of [[Miles Christianus|Miles Christi]] did not assume the literal meaning of participation in war until Church doctrines justifying Christian participation in battle were developed around the 5th century. In the 2nd century writings of Tertullian ''paganus'' meant a "civilian" who was lacking self-discipline. In ''De Corona Militis'' XI.V he writes:
{|
 |style="padding-left: 6em; padding-right: 1em;"|''Apud hunc [Christum] tam miles est paganus fidelis quam paganus est miles fidelis.''
 |style="padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 6em;"|With Him [Christ] the faithful citizen is a soldier, just as the faithful soldier is a citizen.
 |}

=== Chronology and contents ===
The chronology of his writings is difficult to fix with certainty. It is in part determined by the Montanistic views that are set forth in some of them, by the author's own allusions to ''this'' writing, or ''that,'' as antedating others (cf. Harnack, ''Litteratur'' ii.260–262), and by definite historic data (e.g., the reference to the death of [[Septimius Severus]], ''Ad Scapulam'', iv). In his work against [[Marcion]], which he calls his third composition on the Marcionite heresy, he gives its date as the fifteenth year of the reign of Severus (''Adv. Marcionem'', i.1, 15) – which would be approximately 208.

The writings may be divided with reference to the two periods of Tertullian's Christian activity, the mainstream and the Montanist (cf. Harnack, ii.262 sqq.), or according to their subject matter. The object of the former mode of division is to show, if possible, the change of views Tertullian's mind underwent. Following the latter mode, which is of a more practical interest, the writings fall into two groups. Apologetic and polemic writings, like ''[[Apologeticus]]'', ''De testimonio animae'', the [[anti-Judaism|anti-Jewish]] ''[[s:Ante-Nicene Fathers/Volume III/Apologetic/An Answer to the Jews|De Adversus Iudaeos]]'', ''Adv. Marcionem'', ''Adv. Praxeam'', ''Adv. Hermogenem'', ''De praescriptione hereticorum'', and ''Scorpiace'' were written to counteract [[Gnosticism]] and other religious or philosophical doctrines. The other group consists of practical and disciplinary writings, e.g., ''De monogamia'', ''Ad uxorem'', ''De virginibus velandis'', ''De cultu feminarum'', ''De patientia'', ''De pudicitia'', ''De oratione'', and ''Ad martyras''.

Among his apologetic writings, the ''Apologeticus,'' addressed to the Roman magistrates, is a most pungent defense of Christianity and the Christians against the reproaches of the pagans, and an important legacy of the ancient Church, proclaiming the principle of [[freedom of religion]] as an inalienable human right and demanding a fair trial for Christians before they are condemned to death.

Tertullian was the first to disprove charges that Christians sacrificed infants at the [[Eucharist|celebration of the Lord's Supper]] and committed incest. He pointed to the commission of such crimes in the pagan world and then proved by the testimony of [[Pliny the Younger]] that Christians pledged themselves not to commit murder, adultery, or other crimes. He adduced the inhumanity of pagan customs such as feeding the flesh of gladiators to beasts. He argued that the gods have no existence and thus there is no pagan religion against which Christians may offend. Christians do not engage in the foolish worship of the emperors, that they do better: they pray for them, and that Christians can afford to be put to torture and to death, and the more they are cast down the more they grow; "the blood of the [[martyr]]s is seed" (''Apologeticum'', 50). In the ''De Praescriptione'' he develops as its fundamental idea that, in a dispute between the Church and a separating party, the whole [[Legal burden of proof|burden of proof]] lies with the latter, as the Church, in possession of the unbroken tradition, is by its very existence a guarantee of its truth.

The five books against Marcion, written in 207 or 208, are the most comprehensive and elaborate of his polemical works, invaluable for gauging the early Christian view of Gnosticism. Tertullian has been identified by Jo Ann McNamara as the person who originally invested the consecrated virgin as the “bride of Christ”, which helped to bring the independent virgin under patriarchal rule.