View source for Syria

'''Syria''' (سورية ''sūriyya'' or سوريا ''sūryā''), officially the '''Syrian Arab Republic''' (الجمهورية العربية السورية), is a country in [[Western Asia]], bordering [[Lebanon]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the west, [[Turkey]] to the north, [[Iraq]] to the east, [[Jordan]] to the south and [[Israel]] to the southwest.

The name Syria formerly comprised the [[Greater Syria|entire region]] of the [[Levant]], while the modern state encompasses the site of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the [[Ebla]]n civilization of the third millennium BC. In the [[Islam]]ic era, its capital city, [[Damascus]], was the seat of the [[Umayyad Empire]] and a provincial capital of the [[Mamluk|Mamluk Empire]]. Damascus is widely regarded as one of the [[List of cities by time of continuous habitation|oldest continuously inhabited cities]] in the world.<sup[]</sup>

Modern Syria was created as a [[French Mandate of Syria|French mandate]] and attained independence in April 1946, as a parliamentary republic. The post-independence period was rocky, and a large number of military coups and coup attempts shook the country in the period 1949-1970. Syria has been under Emergency Law since 1962, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, and its system of government is considered non-democratic. <sup[]</sup> as The country has been governed by the [[Baath Party]] since 1963, although actual power is concentrated to the presidency and a narrow grouping of military and political strongmen. Syria's current president is [[Bashar al-Assad]], son of [[Hafez al-Assad]], who held office from 1970 until his death in 2000.<sup[]</sup><sup[]</sup> Syria has played a major regional role, particularly through its central role in the [[Arab]] conflict with Israel, which since 1967 has occupied the [[Golan Heights]], and by active involvement in Lebanese and [[Palestinian Authority|Palestinian]] affairs.

The population is mainly [[Sunni]] [[Islam in Syria|Muslim]], but with significant [[Alawi]], [[Shia]], [[Druze]] and [[Christianity in Syria|Christian]] minorities. Since the 1960s, [[Alawite]] military officers have tended to dominate the country's politics. Ethnically, some 90% of the population is [[Arab]], and the state is ruled by the Baath Party according to [[Arab nationalism|Arab nationalist]] principles, while approximately 10% belong to the [[Kurd]]ish, [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Aramaean]] Syriacs, [[Turkmen]], [[Assyrian]] and [[Circassians]] minorities<sup[]</sup>.

== Etymology ==
''See Also [[Name of Syria]]''

The name ''Syria'' derives from [[ancient Greek]] name for Syrians, Σύριοι ''Syrioi'', which the Greeks applied without distinction to the [[Assyrians]] and the [[Aramaeans|Arameans]]<sup[]</sup><sup[]</sup>. A number of modern scholars argue that the Greek word is traced back to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, ''[[Assyria]]'', ultimately derived from the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''[[Assur|Aššur]]''.<sup[]</sup> While others believe that it was derived from ''Siryon'', the name that the [[Sidonians]] gave to [[Mount Hermon]].<sup[]</sup>

The area designated by the word has changed over time. Classically, Syria lies at the eastern end of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], between [[Egypt]] and [[Arabia]] to the south and [[Cilicia]] to the north, stretching inland to include [[Mesopotamia]], and having an uncertain border to the northeast that [[Pliny the Elder]] describes as including, from west to east, [[Commagene]], [[Sophene]], and [[Adiabene]], "formerly known as Assyria".
<sup[]</sup> By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the [[Roman Empire]] (but politically independent from each other): [[Judaea]], later renamed [[Palestina (region)|Palaestina]] in AD&nbsp;135 (the region corresponding to modern day Israel, Jordan, and Palestinian Territories) in the extreme southwest, [[Phoenicia]] corresponding to Lebanon, with Damascena to the inland side of Phoenicia, [[Coele-Syria]] (or "Hollow Syria") south of the [[An Nahr al Kabir|Eleutheris river]], and Mesopotamia.<sup[]</sup>

== History ==
''See Also [[History of Syria]]''

=== Eblan civilization ===
[[File:Philipnote.jpg|thumb|lift|300px|100 [[Syrian pound]] note with Philip the Arab.]]
''See Also [[Eblaite language|Amorites]]''

<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Ebla clay tablet.jpg|thumb|130px|Right|Clay tablet from Ebla's archive.]] -->Around the excavated city of [[Ebla]] near Idlib city in northern Syria, discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire spread from the [[Red Sea]] north to [[Turkey]] and east to [[Mesopotamia]] from 2500 to 2400 BC Ebla appears to have been founded around 3000 BC, and gradually built its empire through trade with the cities of [[Sumer]] and [[Akkad]], as well as with peoples to the northwest.<sup[]</sup> Gifts from [[Pharaoh]]s, found during excavations, confirm Ebla's contact with [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be among the oldest known written [[Semitic languages]], designated as [[Paleo-Canaanite]].<sup[]</sup> However, more recent classifications of the [[Eblaite language]] has shown that it was an [[East Semitic language]], closely related to the [[Akkadian language]].<sup[]</sup> The Eblan civilization was likely conquered by [[Sargon of Akkad]] around 2260 BC; the city was restored, as the nation of the [[Amorites]], a few centuries later, and flourished through the early second millennium BC until conquered by the [[Hittites]].<sup[]</sup>

=== Antiquity and early Christian era ===
''See Also [[Phoenicia]]'' [[Canaan]] [[Aram Damascus]] [[Seleucid Empire]] [[Syria (Roman province)]]

[[Image:Syria bosra theater.jpg|Bosra|thumb|left|Roman theatre in [[Bosra]].]] [[File:Bust of emperor Philippus Arabus - Hermitage Museum.jpg|thumb|right|120px|[[Philip the Arab|Philippus Araps]], Roman Emperor]]
During the second millennium BC, Syria was occupied successively by [[Canaan]]ites, [[Phoenicia]]ns, and [[Arameans]] as part of the general disruptions and exchanges associated with the [[Sea Peoples]]. The Phoenicians settled along the coast of Palestine, as well as in the west ([[Lebanon]]), which was already known for its towering cedars. Egyptians, [[Sumerians]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Babylonian]]s and [[Hittites]] variously occupied the strategic ground of Syria during this period; the land between their various empires being marsh. Eventually, the [[Achaemenid|Persians]] took Syria as part of their hegemony of Southwest Asia; this dominion was transferred to the [[Ancient Macedonians]] after [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquests and the Seleucid Empire. The capital of this Empire (founded in 312BC) was situated at Antioch, modern day Antakya just inside the Turkish border. But the Seleucid Empire was essentially just one long slow period of decline, and Pompey the Great captured Antioch in 64BC, turning Syria into a Roman province. Thus control of this region passed to the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and then the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]].<sup[]</sup>

In the [[Roman Empire]] period, the city of [[Antioch]] was the third largest city in the empire after Rome and [[Alexandria]]. With estimated population of 500,000 at its peak, Antioch was one of the major centres of trade and industry in the ancient world. The population of Syria during the heyday of the empire was probably not exceeded again until the 19th century. Syria's large and prosperous population made Syria one of the most important of the Roman provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries (A.D.). The Roman Emperor [[Alexander Severus]], who was emperor from 222 to 235, was Syrian. His cousin [[Elagabalus]], who was emperor from 218 to 222, was also Syrian and his family held hereditary rights to the high priesthood of the sun god [[El-Gabal]] at [[Emesa]] (modern [[Homs]]) in Syria. Another Roman emperor who was a Syrian was [[Marcus Julius Philippus]], emperor from 244 to 249.<sup[]</sup>

Syria is significant in the [[history of Christianity]]; Saul of Tarsus was converted on the [[Road to Damascus]], thereafter being known as the [[Apostle Paul]], and established the first organized Christian Church at [[Antioch]] in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary journeys.([[Acts 9:1]]-43)

[[Image:PalmyraPanoramaZoom.jpg|thumb|center|850px|The famous desert city of [[Palmyra]], whose ruins are now a United Nations World Heritage site, grew large in the Syrian desert in the 1st and 2nd centuries (A.D.).]]
[[Image:ChurchofAleppo.jpg|thumb|left|St.Simon (Samaan) church in [[Aleppo]] is considered to be one of the oldest remaining churches in the world.]] 
[[Image:Umayyad Mosque-CourtyardEW.jpg|thumb|left|[[Umayyad Mosque|The Umayyad Mosque courtyard, Damascus]].]]

=== Islamic era ===
''See Also [[Umayyad]] [[Caliphate]] [[Abbasid Caliphate]] [[Ayyubid dynasty]] [[Zengid dynasty]] [[Hamdanid dynasty]]
By [[640 AD|AD 640]], Syria was conquered by the [[Rashidun army]] led by [[Khaled ibn al-Walid]], resulting in the area becoming part of the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Islamic empire]]. In the mid-7th century, the [[Umayyad dynasty]], then rulers of the empire, placed the capital of the empire in Damascus. Syria was divided into four districts: Damascus, [[Hims]], [[Jund Filastin|Palestine]] and [[Jordan]]. The Islamic empire stretched from [[Spain]] and [[Morocco]] to [[India]] and parts of [[Central Asia]], thus Syria prospered economically, being the capital of the empire. Early Ummayad rulers such as [[Abd al-Malik]] and [[al-Walid]] constructed several splendid palaces and mosques throughout Syria, particularly in Damascus, [[Aleppo]] and Hims. There was great toleration of Christians in this era and several held governmental posts. The country's power dramatically declined during later Ummayad rule; mainly due to the totalitarianism and corruption spread among the empire's leaderships, conflict between its general staff, and the successive revolutions by the oppressed and miserable groups. As one Ummayad chieftain responded to a question about the reasons of the decline of their empire: "Rather visiting what needed to be visited, we were more interested in the pleasure and enjoyment of life; we oppressed our people until they gave up and sought relief from us, [...] we trusted our ministers who favoured their own interests and kept secrets from us, and we unhurriedly rewarded our soldiers that we lost their obedience to our enemies.” Ummayad dynasty was then overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty in 750, who moved the capital of empire to [[Baghdad]]. [[Arabic language|Arabic]] — made official under Ummayad rule — became the dominant language, replacing [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] in the Abbasid era. In 887, the [[Egypt]]-based [[Tulunid]]s annexed Syria from the Abbasids, and were later replaced by the [[Hamdanid]]s originating in Aleppo founded by [[Sayf al-Daula]].<sup[]</sup>

Sections of the coastline of Syria were briefly held by Frankish overlords during the [[Crusades]] of the 12th century, and were known as the [[Crusader state]] of the [[Principality of Antioch]]. The area was also threatened by [[Shiite]] extremists known as [[Assassins (sect)|Assassins]] (''Hashshashin''). In 1260, the [[Mongols]] arrived, led by [[Hulegu]] with an army 100,000 strong, destroying cities and irrigation works. [[Aleppo]] fell in January 1260, and [[Damascus]] in March, but then Hulegu needed to break off his attack to return to China to deal with a succession dispute.  The command of the remaining Mongol troops was placed under [[Kitbugha]], a Christian Mongol.  A few months later, the Mamluks arrived with an army from Egypt, and defeated the Mongols in the [[Battle of Ayn Jalut]], in [[Galilee]]. The Mamluk leader, [[Baybars]], made his capitals in [[Cairo]] and [[Damascus]], linked by a mail service that traveled by both horses and carrier pigeons.  When Baybars died, his successor was overthrown, and power was taken by a Turk named [[Qalawun]]. In the meantime, an emir named [[Sunqur al-Ashqar]] had tried to declare himself ruler of Damascus, but he was defeated by Qalawun on 21 June 1280, and fled to northern Syria.  Al-Ashqar, who had married a Mongol woman, appealed for help from the Mongols, and in 1281, they arrived with an army of 50,000 Mongols, and 30,000 Armenian, Georgian, and Turkish auxiliaries, along with Al-Ashqar's rebel force. The [[Mongols]] of the [[Ilkhanate]] took the city, but Qalawun arrived with a Mamluk force, persuaded Al-Ashqar to switch sides and join him, and they fought against the Mongols on 29 October 1281, in the [[Second Battle of Homs]], a close battle which resulted in the death of the majority of the combatants, but was finally won by the Mamluks.<sup[]</sup>
[[Image:Saladins grave damaskus.jpeg|thumb|[[Saladin|Saladin's grave in Damascus]].]] 
In 1400, [[Timur Lenk]], or Tamerlane, invaded Syria, sacked [[Aleppo]] and captured [[Damascus]] after defeating the Mamluk army. The city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to [[Samarkand]].<sup[]</sup><sup[]</sup It was during the conquests of Timur that the indigenous Christian population of Syria began to suffer under greater persecutions.

By the end of the 15th century, the discovery of a sea route from Europe to the Far East ended the need for an [[Silk Road|overland trade route]] through Syria. Shattered by the Mongols, Syria was easily absorbed into the [[Ottoman Empire]] from the 16th through 20th centuries, and found itself largely apart from, and ignored by, world affairs. ''see also'' [[Ottoman Syria]]

=== Ottoman era ===
''See Also [[Ottoman Syria]]''
[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1971-104-68, Syrien, Deutsche Truppen im Orient.jpg|thumb|German troups in [[Aleppo]], summer of 1917]]
Because the Ottoman Empire fought on the side of [[Germany]] during [[World War I]], plans by the Entente powers to dissolve this great Ottoman territory could now begin. Two allied diplomats (Frenchman [[François Georges-Picot]] and Briton [[Mark Sykes]]) secretly agreed, long before the end of the war, how to split the Ottoman Empire into several zones of influence. The [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]] of 1916 set the fate of modern [[Southwest Asia]] for the coming century; providing [[France]] with the northern zone (Syria, with later the upcoming [[Lebanon]]), and the [[United Kingdom]] with the southern one ([[Jordan]], [[Iraq]] and later, after renegotiations in 1917, [[Palestine]] - 'to secure daily transportation of troops from [[Haifa]] to [[Baghdad]]' - agreement n° 7). The two territories were only separated with a straight border line from Jordan to [[Iran]]. But early discoveries of [[oil]] in the region of [[Mosul]] just before to end of the war led to yet another negotiation with France in 1918 to cede this region to 'Zone B', or the British zone of influence. The borders between the 'Zone A' and 'Zone B' have not changed from 1918 to this date. Since 1920, the two sides have been recognized internationally under mandate of the [[League of Nations]] by the two dominant countries; France and the United Kingdom.<sup[]</sup>

=== French Mandate ===
''See Also [[French Mandate of Syria]]''
[[Image:Mandate of Syria.png|thumb|right|The States of the French Mandate.]]
In 1920, an independent Arab Kingdom of Syria was established under [[Faisal I]] of the [[Hashemite]] family, who later became the King of [[Iraq]]. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the clash between his Syrian Arab forces and regular French forces at the [[Battle of Maysalun]]. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the [[San Remo conference]] proposed that the [[League of Nations]] put Syria under a French mandate.<sup[]</sup> Syria and France negotiated a [[Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936)|treaty of independence]] in September 1936, and [[Hashim al-Atassi]], who was Prime Minister under King Faisal's brief reign, was the first president to be elected under a new constitution, effectively the first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria. However, the treaty never came into force because the French Legislature refused to ratify it. With the fall of France in 1940 during [[World War II]], Syria came under the control of the [[Vichy France|Vichy Government]] until the [[United Kingdom|British]] and Free French [[Syria-Lebanon campaign|occupied the country]] in July 1941. Syria proclaimed its independence again in 1941 but it wasn't until 1 January 1944 that it was recognised as an independent republic. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalist groups and British pressure forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.<sup[]</sup>

=== Instability and foreign relations: independence to 1967 ===
Although rapid economic development followed the declaration of independence, Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s were marked by upheaval. Between 1946 and 1956, Syria had 20 different cabinets and drafted four separate constitutions. In 1948, Syria was involved in the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War|Arab-Israeli War]], aligning with the other local Arab nations who were attempting to prevent the establishment of [[Israel]].<sup[]</sup> The Syrian army was pressed out of most of the [[Israel]] area, but fortified their strongholds on the [[Golan Heights]] and managed to keep their old borders and some additional territory (this was converted into "supposed" demilitarized zones under UN supervision, but then gradually lost to Israel in the inter-war years; the status of these territories have proved a stumbling-block for Syrian-Israeli negotiations).
[[Image:Adib Chichakli.jpg|Adib Chichakli|thumb|Right|president [[Adib Shishakli]].]]
The humiliating defeat suffered by the army was one of several trigger factors for [[Col.]] [[Husni al-Za'im]]'s seizure of power in 1949, in what has been described as the first military [[coup d'état]] of the [[Arab world]].<sup[]</sup> since the start of the Second World War. This was soon followed by a new coup, by Col. [[Sami al-Hinnawi]], who was then himself quickly deposed by Col. [[Adib Shishakli]], all within the same year.<sup[]</sup> After exercising influence behind the scenes for some time, dominating the ravaged parliamentary scene, Shishakli launched a second coup in 1951, entrenching his rule and eventually abolishing multipartyism altogether. Only when president Shishakli was himself overthrown in a 1954 coup, was the parliamentary system restored, but it was fundamentally undermined by continued political maneuvering supported by competing factions in the military.<sup[]</sup> By this time, civilian politics had been largely gutted of meaning, and power was increasingly concentrated in the military and security establishment, which had now proven itself to be the only force capable of seizing and - perhaps - keeping power.<sup[]</sup> Parliamentary institutions remained weak and ineffectual, dominated by competing parties representing the landowning elites and various [[Sunni]] urban notables, while economy and politics were mismanaged, and little done to better the role of Syria's peasant majority. This, as well as the influence of [[Nasserism]] and other anti-colonial ideologies, created fertile ground for various [[Arab nationalist]], [[Syrian nationalism|Syrian nationalist]] and socialist movements, who represented disaffected elements of society, notably including the religious minorities, and demanded radical reform.<sup[]</sup>
[[Image:Shukri al- quwatli.jpeg|Shukri al-Quwatli|thumb|170px|left|president [[Shukri al-Quwatli]].]]
During the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956, after the invasion of the [[Sinai Peninsula]] by [[Israel]]i troops, and the intervention of British and French troops, [[martial law]] was declared in Syria. The November 1956 attacks on Iraqi pipelines were in retaliation for Iraq's acceptance into the [[Baghdad Pact]]. In early 1957 [[Iraq]] advised Egypt and Syria against a conceivable takeover of Jordan.<sup[]</sup>

In November 1956 Syria signed a pact with the [[Soviet Union]], providing a foothold for [[Communist]] influence within the government in exchange for planes, tanks, and other military equipment being sent to Syria.<sup[]</sup> With this increase in the strength of Syrian military technology worried [[Turkey]], as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake [[Iskenderun]], a matter of dispute between Syria and Turkey. On the other hand, Syria and the [[U.S.S.R.]] accused Turkey of massing its troops at the Syrian border. During this standoff, Communists gained more control over the Syrian government and military. Only heated debates in the United Nations (of which Syria was an original member) lessened the threat of war.<sup[]</sup>

Syria's political instability during the years after the 1954 coup, the parallelism of Syrian and [[Egypt]]ian policies, and the appeal of Egyptian President [[Gamal Abdal Nasser]]'s leadership in the wake of the Suez crisis created support in Syria for union with Egypt.<sup[]</sup> On 1 February 1958, Syrian president [[Shukri al-Quwatli]] and Nasser announced the merging of the two countries, creating the [[United Arab Republic]], and all Syrian political parties, as well as the Communists therein, ceased overt activities.<sup[]</sup>

The union was not a success, however.<sup[]</sup>  Following a military coup on 28 September 1961, Syria seceded, reestablishing itself as the Syrian Arab Republic. Instability characterized the next 18 months, with various coups culminating on 8 March 1963, in the installation by leftist Syrian Army officers of the National Council of the Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative authority. The takeover was engineered by members of the [[Arab Socialist Resurrection Party]] (Baath Party), which had been active in Syria and other Arab countries since the late 1940s. The new cabinet was dominated by Baath members.<sup[]</sup><sup[]</sup>

The Baath takeover in Syria followed a Baath coup in Iraq the previous month. The new Syrian Government explored the possibility of federation with Egypt and with Baath-controlled Iraq.<sup[]</sup> An agreement was concluded in [[Cairo]] on 17 April 1963, for a referendum on unity to be held in September 1963. However, serious disagreements among the parties soon developed, and the tripartite federation failed to materialize. Thereafter, the Baath government in Syria and Iraq began to work for bilateral unity. These plans foundered in November 1963, when the Baath government in Iraq was overthrown. In May 1964, President [[Amin Hafiz]] of the NCRC promulgated a provisional constitution providing for a National Council of the Revolution (NCR), an appointed legislature composed of representatives of mass organizations—labour, peasant, and professional unions—a presidential council, in which executive power was vested, and a cabinet. On 23 February 1966, a group of army officers carried out a successful, intra-party coup, imprisoned President Hafiz, dissolved the cabinet and the NCR, abrogated the provisional constitution, and designated a regionalist, civilian Baath government on 1 March.<sup[]</sup> The coup leaders described it as a "rectification" of Baath Party principles.<sup[]</sup>

=== Six Day War and Aftermath ===
''See Also [[Six Day War]]''
When Nasser closed the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] to [[Eilat]]-bound ships, the Baath government supported the Egyptian leader, amassed troops in the strategic [[Golan Heights]] to defend itself against Israeli shellings into Syria. According to the [[UN]] office in Jerusalem from 1955 until 1967 65 of the 69 border flare-ups between Syria and Israel were initiated by Israelis.<sup[]</sup> The New York Times reported in 1997 that “Moshe Dayan, the celebrated commander who, a Defense Minister in 1967, gave the order to conquer the Golan…[said] many of the firefights with the Syrians were deliberately provoked by Israel, and the kibbutz residents who pressed the government to take the Golan Heights did so less for security than for their farmland.”<sup[]</sup><sup[]</sup> In May 1967, Hafez al-Assad, then Syria's Defense Minister declared: "Our forces are now entirely ready not only to repulse the aggression, but to initiate the act of liberation itself, and to explode the Zionist presence in the Arab homeland. The Syrian Army, with its finger on the trigger, is united... I, as a military man, believe that the time has come to enter into a battle of annihilation."<sup[]</sup> After Israel launched a preemptive strike on Egypt to begin the [[Six-Day War|June 1967 war]], Syria joined the battle against Israel as well.  In the final days of the war, after having captured the Sinai Peninsula and [[Gaza Strip]] from Egypt, as well as the [[West Bank]] and [[eastern Jerusalem]] from Jordan, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing the entire Golan Heights in under 48 hours.<sup[]</sup>

Conflict developed between an extremist military wing and a more moderate civilian wing of the Baath Party. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the [[PLO]] during the "[[Black September in Jordan|Black September]]" hostilities with [[Jordan]] reflected this political disagreement within the ruling Baath leadership.<sup[]</sup> By 13 November 1970, Minister of Defense [[Hafez al-Assad]] was solidly established as the strongman of the government, when he effected a bloodless military coup ("[[Corrective Revolution|The Corrective Movement]]").<sup[]</sup>

=== Baath Party rule under Hafez al-Assad, 1970–2000 ===
''See Also [[Baath Party]] [[Hafez al-Assad]]''

[[Image:Hafez al Assad portrait.jpg|thumb|[[Hafez al-Assad]], former president of Syria.]]
Upon assuming power, [[Hafez al-Assad]] moved quickly to create an organizational infrastructure for his government and to consolidate control. The Provisional Regional Command of Assad's Arab Baath Socialist Party nominated a 173-member legislature, the People's Council, in which the Baath Party took 87 seats. The remaining seats were divided among "popular organizations" and other minor parties. In March 1971, the party held its regional congress and elected a new 21-member Regional Command headed by Assad. In the same month, a national referendum was held to confirm Assad as President for a 7-year term. In March 1972, to broaden the base of his government, Assad formed the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by the Baath Party, and elections were held to establish local councils in each of Syria's 14 governorates. In March 1973, a new Syrian constitution went into effect followed shortly thereafter by parliamentary elections for the People's Council, the first such elections since 1962.<sup[]</sup>

On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt began the [[Yom Kippur War]] by staging a surprise attack against [[Israel]]i forces occupying the Syrian [[Golan Heights]] and the Egyptian [[Sinai Peninsula]]. After early successes, the Israeli military reversed the initial Syrian gains, pushing the Syrian army out of the Golan and invaded into Syrian territory beyond the 1967 border. As a result, [[Israel]] continued to occupy the [[Golan Heights]] as part of the [[Israeli-occupied territories]].<sup[]</sup>

In early 1976, the [[Lebanese civil war]] was going poorly for the [[Maronite Christians]]. Syria sent 40,000 troops into the country to prevent them from being overrun, but soon became embroiled in the [[Lebanese Civil War]], beginning the 30 year [[Syrian occupation of Lebanon]]. Many crimes in Lebanon were associated to the Syrians' forces and intelligences (among others, the assassinations of [[Kamal Jumblat]] and [[Bachir Gemayel]] are usually connected to Syria or Syrian backed groups).  Over the following 15 years of civil war, Syria fought both for control over Lebanon, and as an attempt to undermine Israel in southern Lebanon, through extensive use of Lebanese allies as proxy fighters. Many see the [[Military of Syria|Syrian Army's]] presence in Lebanon as an [[Military occupation|occupation]], especially following the end of the civil war in 1990, after the Syrian-sponsored [[Taif Agreement]]. Syria then remained in Lebanon until 2005, exerting a heavy-handed influence over Lebanese politics, that was deeply resented by many.

About one million Syrian workers came into Lebanon after the war ended to find jobs in the reconstruction of the country.<sup[]</sup> Syrian workers were preferred over [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] and Lebanese workers because they could be paid lower wages, but some have argued that the Syrian government's encouragement of citizens entering its small and militarily dominated neighbor in search of work, was in fact an attempt at Syrian [[colonization]] of Lebanon. Now, the economies of Syria and Lebanon are completely interdependent. In 1994, under pressure from Damascus, the Lebanese government controversially granted citizenship to over 200,000 Syrian residents in the country.<sup[]</sup> (For more on these issues, see [[Demographics of Lebanon]])

The authoritarian government was not without its critics, though open dissent was repressed.  A serious challenge arose in the late 1970s, however, from fundamentalist Sunni Muslims, who reject the basic values of the secular Baath program and object to rule by the Alawis, whom they consider heretical. From 1976 until its suppression in 1982, the arch-conservative [[Muslim Brotherhood]] led an armed insurgency against the government. In response to an attempted uprising by the brotherhood in February 1982, the government [[Hama massacre|crushed the fundamentalist opposition centered in the city of Hama]], leveling parts of the city with artillery fire and causing between 10.000 and 25.000 of dead and wounded, mostly civilians (see [[Hama massacre]]). Since then, public manifestations of anti-government activity have been limited.<sup[]</sup>

Syria's 1990 participation in the U.S.-led multinational coalition aligned against Saddam Hussein marked a dramatic watershed in Syria's relations both with other [[Arab states]] and with the [[Western world]]. Syria participated in the multilateral [[Madrid Conference of 1991|Southwest Asia Peace Conference]] in [[Madrid]] in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct, face-to-face negotiations with [[Israel]]. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President [[Hafiz al-Assad]]'s meeting with then President [[Bill Clinton]] in [[Geneva]] in March 2000.<sup[]</sup>

=== 21st century ===
''See Also [[Bashar al-Assad]]''
[[File:Bashar and Asma al-Assad.jpg|thumb|President [[Bashar al-Assad]] of Syria and his wife [[Asma al-Assad]]]]

Hafiz al-Assad died on 10 June 2000, after 30 years in power. Immediately following al-Assad's death, the Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President from 40 to 34. This allowed his son, [[Bashar al-Assad]], to become legally eligible for nomination by the ruling Baath party. On 10 July 2000, Bashar al-Assad was elected President by referendum in which he ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote, according to Syrian Government statistics. He was inaugurated into office on 17 July 2000 for a 7-year term.<sup[]</sup> He is married to [[Asma al-Assad]], an activist herself and advocate of reforms.<sup[]</sup>

Under [[Bashar al-Assad]] hundreds of political prisoners were released and a steps were taken towards easing media restrictions. However, [[Bashar al-Assad]] has made it clear that his priority is economic rather than political reform.<sup[]</sup>

On 5 October 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, charging it was a [[terrorism|terrorist]] training facility for members of [[Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine|Islamic Jihad]]. The raid was in retaliation for the bombing of a restaurant in the Israeli town of [[Haifa]] that killed 19. Islamic Jihad said the camp was not in use; Syria said the attack was on a civilian area.<sup[]</sup>

The German Chancellor said that the attack "cannot be accepted" and the French Foreign Ministry said "The Israeli operation… constituted an unacceptable violation of international law and sovereignty rules."
The Spanish UN Ambassador [[Inocencio Arias]] called it an attack of "extreme gravity" and "a clear violation of international law."

However, the United States moved closer to imposing sanctions on Syria, following the adoption of the Syria Accountability Act by the House of Representatives International Relations committee.<sup[]</sup> [[Hamas]], Islamic Jihad and Hezbollah, all included in what the EU and the U.S view as terrorist groups, all take refuge and enjoy strong relationships with the Syrian government.

Syrian [[Kurds]] protest in [[Brussels]], [[Geneva]], in Germany at the US and UK embassies and in Turkey, against violence in north-east Syria starting Friday, 12 March, and reportedly extending over the weekend resulting in several deaths, according to reports. The Kurds allege the Syrian government encouraged and armed the attackers. Signs of rioting were seen in the towns of Qameshli and Hassakeh.<sup[]</sup>

On 6 September 2007, Israeli jet fighters carried out an [[air strike]] in the [[Deir ez-Zor Governorate]], known as [[Operation Orchard]], on a target claimed to be a [[nuclear reactor]] under construction by [[North Korean]] technicians. Reportedly a number of the technicians were killed.<sup[]</sup>

In April, 2008, President [[Bashar Al Assad|Assad]] told a [[Qatar]]i newspaper that Syria and Israel had been discussing a peace treaty for a year, with [[Turkey]] acting as a mediator. This was confirmed in May, 2008, by a spokesman for Israeli Prime Minister [[Ehud Olmert]]. The status of the [[Golan Heights]], a major obstacle to a peace treaty, is being discussed. President Assad was quoted in the [[The Guardian]] as telling the Qatari paper:
:''...there would be no direct negotiations with Israel until a new US president takes office. The US was the only party qualified to sponsor any direct talks, [President Assad] told the paper, but added that the [[Presidency of George W. Bush|Bush administration]] "does not have the vision or will for the peace process. It does not have anything."''<sup[]</sup>

== Politics ==
''See Also [[Politics of Syria]]''

Syria is a [[republic]] which has the following [[executive branch]]es of [[government]]: the [[President of Syria|president]], two [[Vice President of Syria|vice presidents]], [[Prime Minister of Syria|prime minister]], [[Council of Ministers of Syria|Council of Ministers]] ([[cabinet]]). Syria's [[legislative branch]] is the unicameral [[People's Council]]. 

Syria's [[judicial branch]]es include the [[Supreme Constitutional Court of Syria|Supreme Constitutional Court]], the [[High Judicial Council]], the Court of [[Cassation]], and the [[State Security]] Courts. [[Islamic]] jurisprudence is a main source of legislation and Syria's judicial system has elements of [[Mecelle|Ottoman]], [[French law|French]], and [[Sharia|Islamic]] laws. Syria has three levels of [[courts]]: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the [[constitution]]al court, the highest [[tribunal]]. Religious courts handle questions of personal and family law.<sup[]</sup> 

Political parties: the Arab Socialist Resurrection Party ([[Baath Party]]) is the dominant party, [[Arab Socialist Movement]], [[Arab Socialist Union]], [[Syrian Communist Party]], [[Democratic Socialist Unionist Party]], and around 15 minor tolerated political parties and 14 existent [[Kurds of Syria|Kurdish]] political parties which are, in fact, illegal.<sup[]</sup>

Suffrage: Universal at the age of 18.<sup[]</sup> 

=== Constitution and Government ===
Syria's [[constitution]] was adopted 13 March 1971.<sup[]</sup> It vests the Baath Party with leadership functions in the state and society. The [[president]] is approved by [[referendum]] for a 7-year term in principle. However, in practise people must elect the leader of the Baath Party as president.  The president also serves as Secretary General of the Baath Party and leader of the National Progressive Front. The National Progressive Front is a coalition of 10 political parties authorized by the government.<sup[]</sup>

The constitution requires the president to be a Muslim,<sup[]</sup> but does not make [[Islam]] the state religion. The constitution gives the president the right to appoint ministers, to declare [[war]] and [[state of emergency]], to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare [[amnesty]], to amend the constitution, and to appoint [[civil servants]] and military personnel.<sup[]</sup><sup[]</sup>
The president of Syria is President Al-Assad since the year 2000.

=== Human Rights ===

Syria has a poor record on human rights. The Assad government has been criticized for arresting democracy and human rights activists, censoring websites, detaining bloggers, and imposing travel bans. Arbitrary detention, torture, and disappearances are widespread. <sup[]</sup> Although Syria's constitution guarantees gender equality, critics say that personal status laws and the penal code discriminate against women and girls. For example, under Syrian criminal law, if a rapist opts to marry his victim,  the court can suspend his punishment. Moreover, it also grants leniency for so-called "honor" crimes.<sup[]</sup> 

Recent arrests contrary to basic human rights include that of Muhannad Al-Hasani, a prominent lawyer and a courageous defender of Syrian prisoners of conscience. Prior to his arrest, Muhannad Al-Hassani had come under increasing pressure from the Syrian authorities because of his work as a lawyer and human rights defender, including his monitoring of Supreme State Security Court (SSSC), which is a special court that exists outside the ordinary criminal justice system to try those perceived as endangering the regime. Activists have called for personal intervention  to secure the release of Muhannad al-Hasany along with  other political prisoners and prisoners of conscience in Syria.<sup[]</sup>

=== Emergency Law ===
Since 1963 the Emergency Law has been in effect, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for Syrians. Syrian governments have justified the state of emergency in the light of the continuing war with [[Israel]]. Syrian citizens approve the President in a [[referendum]]. Syria does not hold multi-party elections for the legislature.<sup[]</sup>

== Administrative divisions ==
{{Syria Labelled Map|float=left}}
[[Governorates of Syria|Districts of Syria]]
{{see|List of cities in Syria}}

Syria is divided into fourteen [[governorate]]s, or ''muhafazat'' (singular: ''[[muhafazah]]''). The governorates are divided into a total of sixty districts, or ''manatiq'' (sing. ''mintaqah''), which are further divided into sub-districts, or ''nawahi'' (sing. ''[[nahiya]]'').

A governor, whose appointment is proposed by the minister of the interior, approved by the cabinet, and announced by executive decree, heads each governorate. The governor is assisted by an elected provincial council. Most of the [[Quneitra Governorate]] has been unilaterally annexed by Israel as the [[Golan Heights]] territory.

The capital [[Damascus]] is the largest city in Syria, and the metropolitan area is a [[Damascus Governorate|governorate]] on its own.
[[Aleppo]] (population 1,671,673) in northern Syria, the second largest city, is also a major industrial, urban and cultural center. [[Aleppo]]'s old town has been designated by the [[UNESCO]] as a [[World Heritage Site]]. [[Latakia]] (population 554,000) along with [[Tartus]] are Syria's main ports on the Mediterranean sea. Other major cities include [[Homs]] (population 1,033,000) in central Syria and [[Deir ez-Zor]] (population 230.000) on the [[Euphrates river]] in eastern Syria.

== Geography ==
[[Geography of Syria]]
[[File:Mashkita.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Mashkita Lake]]
[[File:Burjeslam.jpg|left|thumbnail|200px|Burjeslam, a well known beach just north of [[Latakia]].]]
Syria consists mostly of arid plateau, although the northwest part of the country bordering the [[Mediterranean]] is fairly green. The Northeast of the country "Al Jazira" and the South "Hawran" are important agricultural areas.<sup[]</sup> The [[Euphrates]], Syria's most important river, crosses the country in the east. It is considered to be one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "[[Cradle of Civilization]]".<sup[]</sup>

The climate in Syria is dry and hot, and winters are mild. Because of the country's elevation, snowfall does occasionally occur during winter.<sup[]</sup>
Petroleum in commercial quantities was first discovered in the northeast in 1956. The most important oil fields are those of Suwaydiyah, Qaratshui, Rumayian, and Tayyem, near Dayr az–Zawr. The fields are a natural extension of the Iraqi fields of Mosul and Kirkuk. Petroleum became Syria's leading natural resource and chief export after 1974. Natural gas was discovered at the field of Jbessa in 1940.<sup[]</sup>

== Syrian territorial problems ==
=== Turkish-Syrian dispute over Iskandaron (Hatay) Province ===

See Also [[Hatay Province]]

There is a deep rooted disagreement between [[Turkey]] and Syria over [[Hatay]] Province. 

At present Syrians hold the view that this land is historically Syrian and was illegally ceded in the late 1930s to [[Turkey]] by [[France]] - the mandatory occupying power of Syria (between 1920 and 1946). The Turks remember Syria as a former [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkish]] [[vilayet]] with embitterment. Contemporary Syria and Syrians still consider this land as integral Syrian territory. 60 000 Christian and alawite Syrians fled Iskandaron deeper into Syria after the area was ceded to Turkey in 1938.<sup[]</sup> Syrians call this land ''Liwaaa aliskenderuna'' rather than the Turkish name of [[Hatay]].

=== Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights ===

See Also [[Golan Heights]] 
[[Image:New community on the Golan .jpg‎|thumb|right|300px|[[Golan Heights]]]]
The Golan Heights is a strategic plateau and mountainous region in southwestern Syria. It comprises {{convert|1850|km2|sqmi|0|spell=us}} and includes mountains reaching an altitude of {{convert|2880|m|ft|0|spell=us}} above sea level. The heights dominate the plains below. The [[Jordan]] River, Lake [[Tiberias]] and the Hula Valley border the region on the west. To the east is the Raqqad Valley and the south is Yarmok River and valley. The northern boundary of the region is the mountain Jabal al-Sheikh ([[Mount Hermon]]), one of the highest in the [[Southwest Asia]].  An agreement to establish a demilitarized zone between [[Israel]] and Syria was signed on 20 July 1949,<sup[]</sup> but border clashes continued. Israel captured the Golan Heights from Syria in the 1967 [[Six Day War]]. Between 80,000 and 109,000 of the inhabitants fled, mostly [[Druze]] and [[Circassians]].<sup[]</sup><sup[]</sup> In 1973, Syria tried to regain control of the Golan Heights in a surprise attack on [[Yom Kippur War|Yom Kippur]], the holiest day of the Jewish year. Despite initial Syrian advances and heavy Israeli losses, the Golan Heights remained in Israeli hands after a successful Israeli counter attack. Syria and Israel signed an armistice agreement in 1974, and a [[United Nations]] observer force was stationed there. Israel unilaterally annexed the Golan Heights in 1981, although the Syrian government continues to demand the return of this territory, possibly in the context of a peace treaty.<sup[]</sup>

After the Six-Day War, a population of 20,000 Syrians remained in the Golan Heights, most of them Druze. Since 2005, Israel has allowed Druze apple farmers in the Golan to sell their produce to Syria. In 2006, the export total reached 8,000 tons of apples.<sup[]</sup> Syrian residents of the Golan are also permitted to study at universities in Syria, where they are entitled to free tuition, books and lodging.<sup[]</sup>

== Economy ==

''See Also [[Economy of Syria]]''

Syria is a middle-income country, with an economy based on agriculture, oil, industry, and tourism. However, Syria's economy faces serious problems and challenges and impediments to growth, including: a large and poorly performing public sector; declining rates of oil production; widening non-oil deficit; wide scale corruption; weak financial and capital markets; and high rates of unemployment tied to a high population growth rate.<sup[]</sup>

As a result of an inefficient and corrupt centrally planned economy, Syria has low rates of investment, and low levels of industrial and agricultural productivity. Its GDP growth rate was approximately 2.9% in 2005, according to [[IMF]] statistics. The two main pillars of the Syrian economy have been agriculture and oil. Agriculture, for instance, accounts for 25% of GDP and employs 42% of the total labor force. The government hopes to attract new investment in the tourism, natural gas, and service sectors to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on oil and agriculture. The government has begun to institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets, but reform thus far has been slow and ad hoc. For ideological reasons, privatization of government enterprises is explicitly rejected. Therefore major sectors of the economy including refining, ports operation, air transportation, power generation, and water distribution, remain firmly controlled by the government.<sup[]</sup>

Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulphur oil was discovered near [[Deir ez-Zor]] in eastern Syria. Syria's rate of oil production has been decreasing steadily, from a peak close to {{convert|600000|oilbbl/d|m3/d}} (bpd) in 1995 down to approximately {{convert|425000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}} in 2005. Experts generally agree that Syria will become a net importer of petroleum not later than 2012. Syria exported roughly {{convert|200000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}} in 2005, and oil still accounts for a majority of the country's export income. Syria also produces 22 million cubic meters of gas per day, with estimated reserves around {{convert|8.5|Tcuft|km3}}. While the government has begun to work with international energy companies in the hopes of eventually becoming a gas exporter, all gas currently produced is consumed domestically.<sup[]</sup> 

Some basic commodities, such as diesel, continue to be heavily subsidized, and social services are provided for nominal charges. The subsidies are becoming harder to sustain as the gap between consumption and production continues to increase. Syria has a population of approximately 19 million people, and Syrian Government figures place the population growth rate at 2.45%, with 75% of the population under the age of 35 and more than 40% under the age of 15. Approximately 200,000 people enter the labor market every year. According to Syrian Government statistics, the unemployment rate is 7.5%, however, more accurate independent sources place it closer to 20%. Government and public sector employees constitute over one quarter of the total labor force . Government officials acknowledge that the economy is not growing at a pace sufficient to create enough new jobs annually to match population growth. The [[UNDP]] announced in 2005 that 30% of the Syrian population lives in poverty and 11.4% live below the subsistence level.<sup[]</sup>

=== Foreign Trade ===
Given the policies adopted from the 1960s through the late 1980s, which included nationalization of companies and private assets, Syria failed to join an increasingly interconnected global economy. Syria withdrew from the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] (GATT) in 1951 because of Israel's accession. It is not a member of the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), although it submitted a request to begin the accession process in 2001. Syria is developing regional free trade agreements. As of 1 January 2005, the [[Council of Arab Economic Unity#Greater Arab Free Trade Area|Greater Arab Free Trade Area]] (GAFTA) came into effect and customs duties were eliminated between Syria and all other members of GAFTA. In addition, Syria has signed a free trade agreement with [[Turkey]], which came into force in January 2007, and initialed an Association Agreement with the [[European Union]], which has yet to be signed. Although Syria claims a recent boom in non-oil exports, its trade numbers are notoriously inaccurate and out-of-date. Syria's main exports include crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk of Syrian imports are raw materials essential for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery. Earnings from oil exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government's most important sources of foreign exchange.<sup[]</sup>

=== Transport ===
[[Transportation in Syria]]

Syria has three principal airports - Damascus, Aleppo and Lattakia which serve as hubs for Syrian Air and are also served by a variety of foreign carriers.<sup[]</sup>

The majority of Syrian cargo is carried by [[Chemins de Fer Syriens|Chemins de Fer Syriens (CFS)]] (the Syrian Railway company) and [[TCDD]] (the Turkish counterpart).

For a relatively under developed country Syria's railway infrastructure is of a high quality with many high speed services.<sup[]</sup>

== Demographics ==
[[Demographics of Syria]]
Most people live in the [[Euphrates River]] valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density in Syria is about 99 per km² (258 per square mile).  According to the ''World Refugee Survey 2008'', published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Syria hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers number approximately 1,852,300.  The vast majority of this population was from [[Iraq]] (1,300,000), but sizeable populations from the former [[British Mandate of Palestine]] (543,400) and [[Somalia]] (5,200) also lived in the country.<sup[]</sup> Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 11. Schooling consists of 6 years of [[primary education]] followed by a 3-year general or [[vocational]] training period and a 3-year academic or vocational program. The second 3-year period of academic training is required for [[university]] [[admission]]. Total enrollment at [[post-secondary|post-secondary schools]] is over 150,000. The [[literacy|literacy rate]] of Syrians aged 15 and older is 86% for males and 73.6% for females.

=== Ethnic groups ===
[[File:Syrian20fashions.jpg|thumb|Three Syrian men, 1873.]]

Modern-day Syrians are an overall indigenous [[Levantine]] people. Genetically, they are most closely related to their immediate Levantine neighbours.<sup[]</sup> It was after the arrival of [[Arabia]]n Muslims and their [[Muslim conquest of Syria|conquest of Syria]] that the vast majority of the indigenous inhabitants were culturally and linguistically [[Arabization|Arabized]], and in most cases, also religiously [[Islamization|Islamized]]. As a result of that Arabization, but independent of Islamization since many remained Christian, Syrians today are commonly referred to as an "[[Arab]]" people, by virtue of their current [[vernacular language]], and bonds to [[Arab culture]] and history. As is the case with other now linguistically and culturally Arabized peoples, such as [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]], [[Egyptians]], [[Palestinians]], [[Moroccans]], etc, Syrians also descend largely from a blend of the various groups indigenous to their country, in the case of Syria, most of whom were of the Christian faith and speakers of [[Western Aramaic|Aramaic]]; a language introduced by an earlier conquest. Syrians today, whether Muslim, Christian or other, are therefore a thoroughly Arabized people, and it is these Syrian Arabs, together with some 400,000 [[UNRWA]] [[Palestinian]] Arabs (Muslim, Christian or other) which make up over 90% of the population.<sup[]</sup>

Syria also hosts non-Arabized ethnic minorities. The largest of these groups, the [[Kurds in Syria|Kurds]], constitute about 9% of the population (1,800,000 people).<sup[]</sup> Most Kurds reside in the northeastern corner of Syria and many still speak the [[Kurdish language]]. Sizeable Kurdish communities live in most major Syrian cities as well. The majority of [[Syrian Turkmen]] live in Aleppo, Damascus and Latakia. [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]]/[[Aramean-Syriac people|Syriacs]] Christians are a significant minority that live in the north and northeast (al-Qamishli, al-Hasakah) and number around 700,000 in Syria.<sup[]</sup> Although their numbers have been boosted by many Iraqi refugees since the [[Iraq War]].<sup[]</sup> The [[Assyrian Democratic Organization]], is also banned in Syria by the current Syrian government.

[[Armenians in Syria|Armenians]] number approximately 190,000. Syria holds the [[Armenian diaspora|7th largest Armenian population in the world]]. In addition, approximately 1,300,000 [[Refugees of Iraq|Iraqi refugees]] were estimated to live in Syria in 2007.  Roughly 50 percent of these refugees were Sunni Arab Muslims, 24 percent Shi'a Arab Muslim, and 20 percent Christian.<sup[]</sup> During the Mandate years, there was a significant [[French people|French]] population, many of whom left Syria after the end of French rule. As of 1987, approximately 100,000 [[Circassians]] lived in Syria.<sup[]</sup>

The [[Americas]] have long been a destination for Arab migration, with Syrians arriving in some countries at least as early as the 19th century. The largest concentration of Syrians outside the Middle East is in [[Brazil]], which has over 9 million Brazilians of Arab ancestry.<sup[]</sup> The majority of the 3.5 million [[Arab Argentine]]s are from either Lebanese or Syrian background.<sup[]</sup>

=== Religion ===

''See Also [[Religion in Syria]]''
[[Image:Ananias house.jpg|thumb|right|[[House of Saint Ananias|St Ananias Church]] on the Biblical [[Street Called Straight]] in Old [[Damascus]].]] 

''See Also [[Christianity in Syria]], [[Islam in Syria]], [[Freedom of religion in Syria]]''

[[Fimage:Hama-AlNouri minaret.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hama|Hama, Syria - a minaret of Al Nouri mosque]].]]
[[File:ommayyad masjed.jpg|thumb|left|[[Umayyad Mosque]]]] Muslim 87% ([[Sunnis]] account for 74% of the total,<sup>[]</sup> while the remaining 13% are [[Alawite]], [[Twelvers]], and [[Ismailis]] combined<sup>[]</sup>), [[Druze]] 3%,<sup>[]</sup> Christian 10%<sup>[]</sup> (majority Greek Orthodox, other Christian include Greek Catholic, Protestants and other various denominations). 
[[File:Syrian Armenian Church in Kessab.JPG|thumb|[[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Church]] in [[Kasab]], near [[Latakia]]]] 
[[File:Shrine Zaynab.jpg|thumb|[[Zaynab bint Ali|Shrine of Zaynab bint Ali at Damascus, Syria]].]] 
Christians, a sizable number of which are also found among Syrian [[Palestinians]], are divided into several groups. [[Council of Chalcedon|Chalcedonian]] [[Antiochian Orthodox Church|Antiochian Orthodox]] ("Greek Orthodox"; {{lang-ar|الروم الارثوذكس}}, ''{{transl|ar|DIN|ar-Rūmu 'l-Urṯūḏuks}}'') make up 50–55% of the Christian population; the [[Roman Catholic|Catholics]] ([[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Melkite]], [[Armenian Catholic Church|Armenian Catholic]], [[Syriac Catholic Church|Syriac Catholic]], [[Maronite Church|Maronite]], [[Chaldean Catholic Church|Chaldean]] and [[Latin Rite|Latin]]) make up 18%; the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], the [[Nestorian Assyrians]] and several smaller Christian denominations account for the remainder. Many Christian [[List of Monasteries in Syria|monasteries]] also exist. Many Christian Syrians belong to a high socio-economic class.<sup>[]</sup>.

Syria also has a tiny population of [[Jews]], confined mainly to Damascus, a remnant of a formerly 40,000 strong community. After the [[1947 UN Partition plan]], pogroms against the Jews erupted in Damascus and Aleppo, and Jewish property was confiscated or burned. When the State of Israel was established in 1948, many [[History of the Jews in Syria|Syrian Jews]] sought refuge there. Of the remaining 5,000 Jews, 4,000 left in the 1990s, in the wake of an agreement with the United States. As of 2007, the Jewish community has dwindled to less than 70 Jews, most of them elderly.<sup>[]</sup>

[[image:Syria-Mountain-جبال-سورية.jpg|thumb|right|Mountains of Syria near [[St George's Church|St. George's Monastery]]]]

=== Languages ===
Arabic is the official and most widely [[spoken language]]. [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] is widely spoken in the [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] regions of Syria. Many educated Syrians also speak [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]]. [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] are spoken among the [[Armenians|Armenian]] and [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] minorities. [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], the [[lingua franca]] of the region before the advent of [[Islam]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]], is spoken among certain ethnic groups: as [[Syriac language|Syriac]], it is used as the liturgical language of [[Syriac Christianity|various Syriac denominations]]; modern Aramaic (particularly, [[Turoyo language]] and [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]]) is spoken in [[Al Jazira, Mesopotamia|Al-Jazira]] region. Most remarkably, [[Western Neo-Aramaic]] is still spoken in the village of [[Ma`loula]], and two neighbouring villages, 35 miles (56&nbsp;km) northeast of [[Damascus]].

=== Education in Syria ===
[[Education in Syria]]
The strong educational system in Syria was based on the old French system.
Education is free in all public schools and obligatory up to the 9th grade. Schools are divided into three levels:
*1st to 4th grade: Basic Education Level I (تعليم أساسي حلقة أولى)
*5th to 9th grade: Basic Education Level II (تعليم أساسي حلقة ثانية)
*10th to 12th grade: Secondary Education (التعليم الثانوي), which is the equivalent of High School.

Final exams of the 9th grade are carried out nationally at the same time. The result of these exams determines if the student goes to the "general" secondary schools or the technical secondary schools. Technical secondary schools include industrial and agricultural schools for male students, crafts school for female students, and commercial and computer science schools for both.

At the beginning of the 11th grade, those who go to "general" secondary school have to choose to continue their study in either the "literary branch" or the "scientific branch".

The final exams of the 12th grade (the baccalaureate) are also carried out nationally and at the same time. The result of these exams determines which university, college and specialization the student goes to. To do that the student has to apply through a complicated system called ''Mufadalah''.

Colleges charge modest fees ($10–20 a year) if the student achieves the sufficient marks in his Baccalaureate exams. If not, the student may opt to pay higher fees ($1500–3000) to enroll. There are some private schools and colleges but their fees are much higher.

Most universities in Syria follow the French model of the high education, the university stages and the [[academic degree]]s are:

*First stage: the [[Licentiate|Licence]] awarded after 4 years to 6 years depending on the field.
*Second stage: the [[DEA (former French degree)|DEA or DESS]] 1–2 years postgraduate degree equivalent to the [[Master's degree]] in the American-English systems.
*Third stage: the [[doctorat]] 3–5 years after the [[DEA (former French degree)|DEA]] or an equivalent degree.

Since 1967, all schools, colleges, and universities have been under close government supervision by the [[Baath Party]].<sup>[]</sup>

There are 5 state universities in Syria, and 11 private universities.<sup>[]</sup> The top two are [[University of Damascus]] (180,000 students)<sup>[]</sup>, and [[University of Aleppo]]. <sup>[]</sup> One school is a joint Syrian-European program; the Higher Institute of Business Administration (HIBA) offer undergraduate and gradudate degrees.<sup>[]</sup>

== Military ==
''See Aslo [[Military of Syria]]''
The military intelligence service [[Military Intelligence (Syria)|Shu'bat al-Mukhabarat al-'Askariyya]] is influential.

== Culture ==
''See Aslo [[Music of Syria]] [[Syrian literature]] [[Cuisine of Syria]] [[Public holidays in Syria]]''
[[Image:Eggelin Tomb Tower Palmyra Syria.jpeg|thumb|[[Palmyra|Eggelin Tomb Tower in Palmyra]].]] 
The scribes of the city of [[Ugarit]] created a cuneiform alphabet in the fourteenth century BCE. The alphabet was written in the familiar order we use today.<sup>[]</sup>

Archaeologists have discovered extensive writings and evidence of a culture rivaling those of [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Egypt]] in and around the ancient city of [[Ebla]].<ref>An up-to-date account for the layman, written by the head of the archaeological team that uncovered Ebla is Paolo Matthiae, ''The Royal Archives of Ebla'' (Skira) 2007.</ref> Later Syrian scholars and artists contributed to [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] thought and culture. [[Cicero]] was a pupil of [[Antiochus|Antiochus of Ascalon]]<sup>[]</sup> at [[Athens]]; and the writings of [[Posidonius of Apamea]]<sup>[]</sup> influenced [[Livy]] and [[Plutarch]].

[[Philip Hitti]] claimed, "the scholars consider Syria as the teacher for the human characteristics," and [[Andrea Parrout]] writes, "''each civilized person in the world should admit that he has two home countries: the one he was born in, and Syria.''"

Syria is a traditional society with a long cultural history.<sup>[]</sup> Importance is placed on family, religion, education and self discipline and respect. The Syrian's taste for the traditional arts is expressed in dances such as the al-Samah, the [[Dabkeh]] in all their variations and the sword dance. Marriage ceremonies and the birth of children are occasions for the lively demonstration of folk customs.<sup>[]</sup>

Traditional Houses of the Old Cities in Damascus, Aleppo and the other Syrian cities are preserved and traditionally the living quarters are arranged around one or more courtyards, typically with a fountain in the middle supplied by spring water, and decorated with citrus trees, grape vines, and flowers.<sup>[]</sup>

[[File:Fattoush.JPG|thumb|left|[[Fattoush]], an example of Syrian cuisine.]]
Outside of larger city areas such as Damascus, Aleppo or Homs, residential areas are often clustered in smaller villages. The buildings themselves are often quite old (perhaps a few hundred years old), passed down to family members over several generations. Residential construction of rough concrete and blockwork is usually unpainted, and the palette of a Syrian village is therefore simple tones of grays and browns.<sup>[]</sup>

[[File:Syrischer Maler um 1300 001.jpg|thumb|right|Syrian painting circa 1300.]]
Syrians have contributed to [[Arabic literature]] and music and have a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Syrian writers, many of whom immigrated to Egypt, played a crucial role in the [[nahda]] or Arab literary and cultural revival of the nineteenth century. Prominent contemporary Syrian writers include, among others, [[Ali Ahmad Said|Adonis]], [[Muhammad al-Maghut|Muhammad Maghout]], [[Haidar Haidar]], [[Ghada al-Samman]], [[Nizar Qabbani]] and [[Zakariyya Tamer]].

There was a private sector presence in the Syrian cinema industry until the end of the 1970s, but private investment has since preferred the more lucrative television serial business. Syrian soap operas, in a variety of styles (all melodramatic, however), have considerable market penetration throughout the eastern Arab world.<sup>[]</sup>

Although declining, Syria's world-famous handicraft industry still employs thousands.

Syrian food mostly consists of Southern Mediterranean, Greek, and Southwest Asian dishes. Some Syrian dishes also evolved from Turkish and French cooking. Dishes like [[Kebab|shish kebab]], stuffed zucchini, [[yabra']] (stuffed grape leaves, the word yapra' derıves from the [[Turkish language|Turkish]] word 'yaprak' meaning leaf), [[shawarma]], and [[falafel]] are very popular in Syria as the food there is diverse in taste and type. Restaurants are usually open (food is served outdoors).<sup>[]</sup>
=== Music of Syria ===
Syria's capital and largest city, [[Damascus]], has long been one of the Arab world's centers for cultural and artistic innovation, especially in the field of [[classical Arab music]]. Syria has also produced several pan-Arab stars, often in exile, including [[George Wasoof]] ,[[Nur Mahana]] and yang singer [[Lena Chamamyan]]. The city of [[Aleppo]] is known for its [[muwashshah]], a form of [[Andalous]] sung poetry popularized by [[Sabri Moudallal]], as well as popular stars like [[Sabah Fakhri]].  [[Dabka]] and other forms of [[dance music]] are also popular.

Also, Syria was one of the earliest centers of Christian [[hymn]]ody, in a repertory known as [[Syrian chant]], which continues to be the liturgical music of some of the various [[Syriac Christianity|Syrian Christians]].
There was formerly a distinctive tradition of [[Syrian Jews|Syrian Jewish]] religious music, which still flourishes in the Syrian-Jewish community of New York: see [[The Weekly Maqam]], [[Baqashot]] and [[Pizmonim]].

=== Syrian literature ===
Syrian literature has been influenced by the country's political history.

Under [[Ottoman Syria|Ottomon rule]], literary production was subjected to censorship. In the second half of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth, aspiring Syrian writers often chose emigration, moving primarily to [[Egypt]] -where they contributed to [[al-Nahda]], the renaissance of [[Arabic literature]]- and to the [[United States]], developing Syrian literature from abroad.

From 1918 to 1926, while Syria was [[French Mandate of Syria|under French rule]], [[French literature|French]] [[Romantic literature#Visual art and literature|Romantic]] influences inspired Syrian authors, many of whom turned away from the traditional models of [[Arabic poetry]].

In 1948, the [[History of Palestine#State of Israel: 1948 to present|partitioning of neighbouring Palestine and the establishment of Israel]] brought about a new turning point in Syrian writing. ''[[Adab al-Iltizam]]'', the "literature of political commitment", deeply marked by [[social realism]], mostly replaced the romantic trend of the previous decades. [[Hanna Mina]], rejecting [[art for art's sake]] and confronting the social and political issues of his time, was arguably the most prominent Syrian novellist of this era. Following the [[Six-Day War]] in 1967, ''[[Adab al-Naksa]]'', the "literature of defeat", grappled with the causes of the Arab defeat.

[[History of Syria#Baath Party rule under Hafez al-Assad.2C 1970.E2.80.932000|Baath Party rule]], since the [[1966 Syrian coup d'état|1966 coup]], has brought about renewed censorship. As Hanadi Al-Samman puts it,
:''"In the face of threats of persecution or imprisonment, most of Syria's writers had to make a choice between living a life of artistic freedom in exile-as do [[Nizar Kabbani]], [[Ghada al-Samman]], [[Hamida Na'na']], [[Salim Barakat]], and prominent poet, critic, and novelist [['Ali Ahmad Sa'id]] (Adonis)-or resorting to subversive modes of expression that seemingly comply with the demands of the authoritarian police state while undermining and questioning the legitimacy of its rule through subtle literary techniques and new genres"''.

In this context, the genre of the [[historical novel]], spearheaded by [[Nabil Sulayman]], [[Fawwaz Haddad]], [[Khyri al-Dhahabi]] and [[Nihad Siris]], is sometimes used as a means of expressing dissent, critiquing the present through a depiction of the past. Syrian [[Folklore#Categories of folklore|folk narrative]], as a subgenre of historical fiction, is imbued with [[magical realism]], and is also used as a means of veiled criticism of the present. [[Salim Barakat]], a Syrian émigré living in [[Sweden]], is one of the leading figures of the genre.

Contemporary Syrian literature also encompasses [[science fiction]] and futuristic [[utopia]]e ([[Nuhad Sharif]], [[Talib Umran]]), which may also serve as media of dissent.

[[Mohja Kahf]] has argued that literary dissent is typically expressed through the "poetics of Syrian silence":
:''"The nostlagic, moist-eyed silences of [[Ulfat Idilbi]]'s narrative could not be more different from the chilling, cynical silences in [[Zakaria Tamer]]'s stories. The impassioned lacunae in [[Nizar Kabbani]]'s proclaim exactly what it is they are not saying explicitly, while the poet [[Muhammad al-Maghut]]'s silence is sardonic, sneering both at the authorities and at himself, at the futility and absurdity of the human situation under authoritarian rule"''.

=== Fairs and festivals ===
[[File:Festival of le Crac des Chevaliers and the Valley for Arts&Culture.jpg‎|thumb|right|250px|Festival of le [[Crac des Chevaliers]] and the [[Wadi Al-Nasarah|Valley]] for Arts & Culture (2008)]]
{| class=wikitable
|-
!Festival/Fair
!City
!Month
|-
|Flower Festival
|[[Latakia]]
|April
|-
|[[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] New Year Festival
|[[Qamishli]]
|April
|-
|Traditional Festival
|[[Palmyra]]
|May
|-
|International Flower Fair
|[[Damascus]]
|May
|-
|Syrian Song Festival
|[[Aleppo]]
|July
|-
|[[Marmarita]] Festival
|[[Hims]]
|August
|-
|Festival of le [[Crac des Chevaliers]] and the [[Wadi Al-Nasarah|Valley]] for Arts&Culture
|[[Hims]]
|August
|-
|Vine Festival
|[[As Suwayda]]
|September
|-
|Cotton Festival
|[[Aleppo]]
|September
|-
|Damascus International Fair
|[[Damascus]]
|September
|-
|Festival of Love and Peace
|[[Lattakia]]
|2 - 12 August
|-
|[[Bosra]] Festival
|[[Bosra]]
|September
|-
|Film and Theatre Festival
|[[Damascus]]
|November
|-
|Cultural Festival of Jableh
|[[Jableh]]
|July
|-

|Jasmine Festival
|[[Damascus]]
|April
|}

== See also ==

*[[Index of Syria-related articles]]
*[[Religion in Syria]]

== References ==
*Boczek, Boleslaw Adam (2006). ''International Law: A Dictionary''. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-5078-8 
* [[Glass, Charles]], "Tribes with Flags: A Dangerous Passage Through the Chaos of the Middle East", Atlantic Monthly Press (New York) and Picador (London), 1990 ISBN 0-436-18130-4
*Karoubi, Mohammad Taghi (2004). ''Just or Unjust War?'' Ashgate Publishing ISBN 0-7546-2375-0
*{{cite book|title=Timeframe AD 1200-1300: The Mongol Conquests|publisher=Time-Life Books|year=1989|isbn=0-8094-6437-3|author=the editors of Time-Life Books.}}
*[[Forward Magazine]] [http://fw-magazine.com (check it also online)], Syria's English monthly since 2007.

== Footnotes ==
* 1. Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division (2009) (.PDF). World Population Prospects, Table A.1. 2008 revision. United Nations. http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-12. 
* 2. "Syria". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=463&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr1.x=39&pr1.y=13. Retrieved 2009-04-22. 
* 3. Neo Lithic Tell Ramad in the Damascus Basin of Syria
* 4. http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2009&country=7713 Freedom on the world report
* 5. Baath Party The Columbia Encyclopedia Sixth Edition 2001–05. Retrieved 2007, 06-13.
* 6. "Syria (05/07)". State.gov. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 7. "Syria article - Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia". Msn.com. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569233_2/Syria.html. 
* 8. Herodotus, The Histories, VII.63, [1]
* 9. Joseph, John (2008). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms?" (PDF). http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v11n2/JohnJoseph.pdf. 
* 10. First proposed by Theodor Nöldeke in 1881; cf. Harper, Douglas (November 2001). "Syria". Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Syria. Retrieved 2007-06-13. .
* 11. Greater Syria: The History of an Ambition. Middle East Forum. pp. 13. ISBN 0195060229. http://books.google.com/books?id=J3PsAb1uV94C&printsec=frontcover#PPA13,M1. 
* 12. Pliny. "Book 5 Section 66". Natural History. University of Chicago Website. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/5*.html. 
* 13. "Syria :: Roman provincial organization - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria/29905/Roman-provincial-organization#default. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 14. "Syria: A country Study - Ancient Syria". Library of Congress. Data as of April 1987. http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_syriaancient.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-05. 
* 15. "The Aramaic Language and Its Classification". Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies Vol. 14 (No. 1). http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v14n1/e8.pdf. 
* 16. Relations between God and Man in the Hurro-Hittite Song of Release, Mary R. Bachvarova, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Jan-Mar SAAD 2005
* 17. Cavendish Corporation, Marshall (2006). World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. p. 183. ISBN 0761475710. 
* 18. Syria: History Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2008-10-22
* 19. Timeframe pp. 59-75
* 20. Battle of Aleppo
* 21. The Eastern Mediterranean, 1400–1600 A.D.
* 22. http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/pdf/III_-_Protmand_modifie_mandat.pdf
* 23. Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer. "The Middle East, p761". The Encyclopedia of World History. Houghton Mifflin Books. http://books.google.com/books?id=MziRd4ddZz4C&dq=league+of+nations+mandate+for+syria&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0. 
* 24. "Background Note: Syria". United States Department of State, Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, May 2007. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm. 
* 25. "Syria: World War II and independence". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria/29922/World-War-II-and-independence. 
* 26. Walt, Stephen (1990). The Origins of Alliances. Cornell University Press. pp. 72–73. ISBN 0801494184. 
* 27. Brecher, Michael; Jonathan Wilkenfeld (1997). A Study of Crisis. University of Michigan Press. pp. 345–346. ISBN 0472108069. 
* 28. Kamrava, Mehran, The Modern Middle East: A Political History since the First World War, University of California Press; 1 edition, page 48
* 29. http://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/11/world/general-s-words-shed-a-new-light-on-the-golan.html
* 30. http://www.mediamonitors.net/mosaddeq24.html#_edn21
* 31. Bard, Mitchell G. (2002). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Middle East Conflict. Alpha books. ISBN 0-02-864410-7, 2002, p. 196.
* 32. "A Campaign for the Books". Time Magazine. September 1, 1967. http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,837237,00. 
* 33. "Jordan asked Nixon to attack Syria, declassified papers show - CNN.com". Edition.cnn.com. http://edition.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/11/28/nixon.papers/index.html. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 34. Seale, Patrick (1988). Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East. University of California Press. ISBN 0520069765. 
* 35. Rabinovich, Abraham (2005). The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter That Transformed the Middle East. New York, NY: Schocken Books. p. 302. ISBN 0805241760. 
* 36.^ "Syria's Role in Lebanon by Mona Yacoubian: USIPeace Briefing: U.S. Institute of Peace". Usip.org. http://www.usip.org/pubs/usipeace_briefings/2006/1109_syria_lebanon.html. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 37.^ "تقرير الوزير اللبناني أحمد فتفت عن ملف المجنسين". Alzaytouna.net. http://www.alzaytouna.net/arabic/?c=201&a=52460. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 38.^ Marc PerelmanFri. Jul 11, 2003 (By Marc PerelmanFri. Jul 11, 2003). ""Syria Makes Overture Over Negotiations - Forward.com"". Forward.com. http://www.forward.com/articles/7655/. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 39.^ ""First Lady Asma al-Assad: When we talk about Damascus, we are talking about history itself - Forward Magazine"". Forward Magazine. http://www.fw-magazine.com/content/first-lady-asma-al-assad-when-we-talk-about-damascus-we-are-talking-about-history-itself. 
* 40.^ "BBC NEWS | Middle East | Profile: Syria's Bashar al-Assad". News.bbc.co.uk. Last Updated:. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2579331.stm. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 41.^ "Israel launches strikes on Syria in retaliation for bomb attack". The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/israel-launches-strikes-on-syria-in-retaliation-for-bomb-attack-582373.html. Retrieved 2008-10-23. 
* 42.^ Fact Sheet, The White House
* 43.^ "Naharnet Newsdesk - Syria Curbs Kurdish Riots for a Merger with Iraq's Kurdistan". Naharnet.com. http://www.naharnet.com/domino/tn/Newsdesk.nsf/Story/8A24116B9C5C2F34C2256E59002D08F0?OpenDocument&PRINT. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 44.^ Sanger, David (2007-10-14). "Israel Struck Syrian Nuclear Project, Analysts Say". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/14/washington/14weapons.html?hp. Retrieved 2007-10-15. 
* 45.^ Walker, Peter; News Agencies (21 May 2008). "Olmert confirms peace talks with Syria". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/may/21/israelandthepalestinians.syria. Retrieved 2008-05-21. "Israel and Syria are holding indirect peace talks, with Turkey acting as a mediator..." 
* 46.^ "Syria clamps down on Kurd parties". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3774055.stm. Retrieved 2008-10-22. 
* 47.^ a b c d "Constitution of Syria". http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/sy00000_.html. Retrieved 2008-10-22. 
* 48.^ Human Rights Watch Anuual Report http://www.hrw.org/en/node/79303
* 49.^ Human Rights Watch Anuual Report http://www.hrw.org/en/node/79303
* 50.^ FIDH Petition for release of human rights defender Muhannad Al Hassani http://www.fidh.org/SYRIA-Release-immediately-human
* 51.^ a b National Council of Geography Teachers (U.S.) (1928). The Journal of Geography. The Journal of geography. p. 167. 
* 52.^ F. A. Schaeffer, Claude (2003). Syria and the Cradle of Civilization: The Findings of Claude F a Schaeffer in Ras Shamra. Trubner & Company. ISBN 1844531295. 
* 53.^ http://creativesyria.com/discussion/topicpost.php?TopicAuthorID=23&TopicID=28
* 54.^ "The Avalon Project: Israeli-Syrian General Armistice Agreement, July 20, 1949". Yale.edu. http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/arm04.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 55.^ Morris (2001) , p. 327: "Another eighty to ninety thousand civilians fled or were driven from the Golan Heights."
* 56.^ Report of the UN Secretary-General under GA res. 2252 (ES-V) and SC res. 237 (1967), p. 14: "The original population, assumed to have been some 115,000 according to Syrian sources, and some 90,000 according to Israel sources, included 17,000 Palestinian refugees registered with UNRWA. At the time of the Special Representative's visit, this entire population had left the area, except for some 6,000 Druses living in agricultural villages and for some 250 other civilians living mainly in the town of Kuneitra".
* 57.^ "BBC NEWS | World | Middle East | Country profiles | Regions and territories: The Golan Heights". News.bbc.co.uk. Page last updated at 15:09 GMT, Tuesday, 15 January 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/3393813.stm. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 58.^ "BBC NEWS". News.bbc.co.uk. Monday, 7 February, 2005, 19:48 GMT. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4244333.stm. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 59.^ "Worldandnation: Golan families dream of reunion". Sptimes.com. http://www.sptimes.com/2007/02/18/Worldandnation/Golan_families_dream_.shtml. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 60.^ "Syria travel guide - Wikitravel". Wikitravel.org. http://wikitravel.org/en/Syria#Get_in. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 61.^ "How to travel by train from London to Syria | Train travel in Syria". Seat61.com. http://www.seat61.com/Syria.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 62.^ a b "World Refugee Survey 2008". U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. 2008-06-19. http://www.refugees.org/survey. 
* 63.^ "Phoenicians Online Extra @ National Geographic Magazine". Magma.nationalgeographic.com. October 2004. http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0410/feature2/online_extra.html. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 64.^ "Syria". The World Factbook. 2007. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html#People. 
* 65.^ "Syria - Kurds". Library of Congress Country Studies. http://countrystudies.us/syria/23.htm. 
* 66.^ Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Ethnologue.com
* 67.^ Iraqi Christian refugees pine for home, but fear they face death
* 68.^ A Country Study: Syria. The Library of Congress.
* 69.^ The Arabs of Brazil. Saudi Aramco World.
* 70.^ Inmigracion sirio-libanesa en Argentina
* 71.^ a b c d "Syria - International Religious Freedom Report 2006". U.S. Department of State. 2006. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71432.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-28. 
* 72.^ Forward Magazine, Interview with Ignatius IV, the Patriarch of Antioch and All the East, March 2008
* 73.^ "Syrian Jews". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/syrianjews.html. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 74.^ "Syria - Education". Countrystudies.us. http://countrystudies.us/syria/37.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-25. 
* 75.^ Forward Magazine, Private Universities in Syria, by Joshua Landis, July 2007
* 76.^ Forward Magazine, Interview with President of Damascus University, February 2008
* 77.^ Forward Magazine, Interview with President of Aleppo University, May 2008
* 78.^ Forward Magazine, Interview with the Rector of HIBA, March 2008
* 79.^ Gordon, Cyrus Herzl (1965). The Ancient Near East. W.W. Norton & Company Press. ISBN 0-393-00275-6. 
* 80.^ An up-to-date account for the layman, written by the head of the archaeological team that uncovered Ebla is Paolo Matthiae, The Royal Archives of Ebla (Skira) 2007.
* 81.^ Plutarch, Cicero, c. 4; Lucullus, c. 4; Cicero, Academica, ii. 19.
* 82.^ Posidonius, Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.
* 83.^ Hopwood, Derek (1988). Syria 1945-1986: Politics and Society. Routledge. ISBN 0044450397. 
* 84.^ a b Salamandra, Christa (2004). A New Old Damascus: Authenticity and Distinction in Urban Syria. Indiana University Press. p. 103. ISBN 0253217229. 
* 85.^ Antoun, Richard (1991). Syria: Society, Culture, and Polity. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791407136. 
* 86.^ Salti, Rasha (2006). Insights Into Syrian Cinema: Essays and Conversations with Contemporary Filmmakers. ArteEast. ISBN 1892494701. 
* 87.^ Akbar Mahdi, Ali; Richard M. Lerner (2003). Teen Life in the Middle East. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 190. ISBN 031331893X.

== External links ==

; Government
*[http://www.mofa.gov.sy Syrian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
*[http://www.moc.gov.sy Syrian Ministry of Culture]
*[http://www.syriatourism.org Syrian Ministry of Tourism]
*[http://www.parliament.gov.sy Syrian Parliament]
*[http://www.syrianawkkaf.org Syrian Ministry of Awkkaf & Islamic Affiars]

;General information
*[http://www.e.sy E.sy] The First Complete Governmental Online Services
*[http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/sy/ Syria] from the [[United States Department of State]] with links to Background Notes, embassy and reports
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sytoc.html Country Study] from the U.S. [[Library of Congress]] (April 1987)
*[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/syria.htm Syria] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''


; History
*[http://www.syrianhistory.com/ Syrian history in pictures]

; Culture
*[http://cinemasy.com/ The Syrian National Film Organization]
*[http://www.rtv.gov.sy/ Syrian General Organization of Radio and TV]
*[http://www.alassad-library.gov.sy/ Al Assad National Library]
*[http://www.agastone.hu/eng/syria.html Pictures of Syria]
*[http://homepage.mac.com/wkaemena/FSPanos/Menu352.html Interactive Panoramas of Syria (Quicktime required)]

; Society
*[http://www.syriapath.com syriapath]  for Syrians and Syrian expats
*[http://www.syria-events.com Syria-Events]  A website which keeps track of upcoming events and activities in Syria
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A_K_BZsV4EA] A short video song about Syria and its main Landmarks

; Economy
*[http://www.banquecentrale.gov.sy/ Central Bank of Syria]
*[http://www.cbs-bank.com/en_index.php/ The Commercial Bank of Syria]

; News media
*[http://www.fw-magazine.com Forward Magazine]
*[http://newsfromsyria.com Syria News Wire]
*[http://www.amude.net political news in kurdish (kurmanji)]
*[http://www.knntv.net political news in Arabic]
*[http://www.esyria.sy eSyria]  the first complete Syrian portal
*[http://www.syria-news.com syria-news]  Popular local news website
*[http://www.syriatoday.com syria today news]  News Agency
*[http://www.sana.org SANA Syrian Arab News Agency] Government News Agency
*[http://www.rtv.gov.sy/ Syrian General Organization of Radio and TV]
*[http://www.champress.net/ Cham Press] A complete roundup of news about Syria (in Arabic & English)

; Cities & Towns
*[http://www.yallatrip.com Syrian Cities Guide]
*[http://www.mshtawy.com Mashta Al Helou Official Website]
*[http://www.safita1.com Safita Official Website]
*[http://www.alkafroun.com alkafroun Official Website]
*[http://www.dai3tna.com Marmarita Official Website]

[[Category:Arab republics]]
[[Category:Syria| ]]
[[Category:Levant]]
[[Category:Mesopotamia]]
[[Category:Fertile Crescent]]
[[Category:Near Eastern countries]]
[[Category:Western Asia]]
[[Category:Arabic-speaking countries]]
[[Category:Arab League member states]]
[[Category:Organisation of the Islamic Conference members]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1946]]


==External Links==
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria Wikipedia Article on Syria]

{{Donate}}