Greek alphabet

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Dipylon inscription, one of the oldest known samples of the use of the Greek alphabet, ca. 740 BC

The Greek alphabet is a set of twenty-four letters that has been used to write the Greek language since the 8th century BC.^[] It is still in use today. It is the first and oldest alphabet in the narrow sense that it notes each vowel and consonant with a separate symbol.^[] The letters were also used to represent Greek numerals, beginning in the 2nd century BC.

The Greek alphabet is descended from the Phoenician alphabet, and is not related to Linear B or the Cypriot syllabary, earlier writing systems for Greek. It has given rise to many other alphabets used in Europe and the Middle East, including the Latin alphabet.^[] In addition to being used for writing Ancient and Modern Greek, its letters are today used as symbols in mathematics and science, as particle names in physics, as components of star names, in the names of fraternities and sororities, in the naming of supernumerary tropical cyclones, and for other purposes.

In traditional ("polytonic") Greek orthography, vowel letters can be combined with several diacritics, including accent marks, so-called "breathing" marks, and the iota subscript. In common present-day usage for Modern Greek since the 1980s, this system has been simplified to a so-called "monotonic" convention.

History

Letter names

Each of the Phoenician letter names was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus ʾaleph, the word for "ox", was adopted for the glottal stop /ʔ/, bet, or "house", for the /b/ sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, ʾaleph, bet, gimel became alpha, beta, gamma. These borrowed names had no meaning in Greek except as labels for the letters. However, a few signs that were added or modified later by the Greeks do in fact have names with meanings. For example, o mikron and o mega mean "small o" and "big o". Similarly, e psilon and u psilon mean "plain e" and "plain u", respectively.

Main letters

Below is a table listing the Greek letters, as well as their forms when romanized. The table also provides the equivalent Phoenician letter from which each Greek letter is derived. Pronunciations transcribed using the International Phonetic Alphabet.

The classical pronunciation given below is the reconstructed pronunciation of Attic in the late 5th and early 4th century BC. Some of the letters had different pronunciations in pre-classical times or in non-Attic dialects. For details, see History of the Greek alphabet and Ancient Greek phonology. For details on post-classical Ancient Greek pronunciation, see Koine Greek phonology.

Letter	Corresponding Phoenician letter	Name				Transliteration¹		Pronunciation		Numeric value
Letter	Corresponding Phoenician letter	English	Ancient Greek	Medieval Greek (polytonic)	Modern Greek	Ancient Greek	Modern Greek	Classical Ancient Greek	Modern Greek	Numeric value
Α α	Aleph	Alpha	ἄλφα		άλφα	a		[a] [aː]	[a]	1
Β β	Image:Phoenician beth.png Beth	Beta	βῆτα		βήτα	b	v	[b]	[v]	2
Γ γ	Gimel	Gamma	γάμμα		γάμ(μ)α	g	gh, g, y	[ɡ]	[ɣ], [ʝ]	3
Δ δ	Image:Phoenician daleth.svg Daleth	Delta	δέλτα		δέλτα	d	d, dh	[d]	[ð]	4
Ε ε	Image:Phoenician he.svg He	Epsilon	εἶ	ἒ ψιλόν	έψιλον	e		[e]		5
Ζ ζ	Zayin	Zeta	ζῆτα		ζήτα	z		[zd, dz, zː] (?)	[z]	7
Η η	Image:Phoenician heth.png Heth	Eta	ἦτα		ήτα	e, ē	i	[ɛː]	[i]	8
Θ θ	Image:Phoenician teth.svg Teth	Theta	θῆτα		θήτα	th		[tʰ]	[θ]	9
Ι ι	Image:Phoenician yodh.png Yodh	Iota	ἰῶτα		(γ)ιώτα	i		[i] [iː]	[i], [ʝ]	10
Κ κ	Image:Phoenician kaph.png Kaph	Kappa	κάππα		κάπ(π)α	k		[k]	[k], [c]	20
Λ λ	Image:Phoenician lamedh.png Lamedh	Lambda	λάβδα	λάμβδα	λάμ(β)δα	l		[l]		30
Μ μ	Image:Phoenician mem.png Mem	Mu	μῦ		μι/μυ	m		[m]		40
Ν ν	Image:Phoenician nun.png Nun	Nu	νῦ		νι/νυ	n		[n]		50
Ξ ξ	Image:Phoenician samekh.svg Samekh	Xi	ξεῖ	ξῖ	ξι	x	x, ks	[ks]		60
Ο ο	Image:Phoenician ayin.png 'Ayin	Omicron	οὖ	ὂ μικρόν	όμικρον	o		[o]		70
Π π	Image:Phoenician pe.png Pe	Pi	πεῖ	πῖ	πι	p		[p]		80
Ρ ρ	Image:Phoenician res.png Resh	Rho	ῥῶ		ρω	r, rh	r	[r], [r̥]	[r]	100
Σ σ ς	Image:Phoenician sin.png Sin	Sigma	σῖγμα		σίγμα	s		[s]		200
Τ τ	Image:Phoenician taw.png Taw	Tau	ταῦ		ταυ	t		[t]		300
Υ υ	Image:Phoenician waw.png Waw	Upsilon	ὖ	ὖ ψιλόν	ύψιλον	u, y	y, v, f	[ʉ(ː)], [y(ː)]	[i]	400
Φ φ	origin disputed (see text)	Phi	φεῖ	φῖ	φι	ph	f	[pʰ]	[f]	500
Χ χ		Chi	χεῖ	χῖ	χι	ch	ch, kh	[kʰ]	[x], [ç]	600
Ψ ψ		Psi	ψεῖ	ψῖ	ψι	ps		[ps]		700
Ω ω	Image:Phoenician ayin.png 'Ayin	Omega	ὦ	ὦ μέγα	ωμέγα	o, ō	o	[ɔː]	[o]	800

For details and different transliteration systems see Romanization of Greek.

Variant forms

Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval minuscule handwriting. While their use in normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings in Unicode.

The symbol ϐ ("curled beta") is a cursive variant form of beta (β). In the French tradition of Ancient Greek typography, β is used word-initially, and ϐ is used word-internally.
The letter epsilon can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped <math>\epsilon\,\!</math> ('lunate epsilon', like a semicircle with a stroke) or <math>\varepsilon\,\!</math> (similar to a reversed number 3). The symbol ϵ (U+03F5) is designated specifically for the lunate form, used as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϑ ("script theta") is a cursive form of theta (θ), frequent in handwriting, and used with a specialized meaning as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϰ ("kappa symbol") is a cursive form of kappa (κ), used as a technical symbol.
The symbol ϖ ("variant pi") is an archaic script form of pi (π), also used as a technical symbol.
The letter rho (ρ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the descending tail either going straight down or curled to the right. The symbol ϱ (U+03F1) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as a technical symbol.
The letter sigma, in standard orthography, has two variants: ς, used only at the ends of words, and σ, used elsewhere. The form ϲ ("lunate sigma", resembling a Latin c) is a medieval stylistic variant that can be used in both environments without the final/non-final distinction.
The capital letter upsilon (Υ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the upper strokes either straight like a Latin Y, or slightly curled. The symbol ϒ (U+03D2) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as a technical symbol.
The letter phi can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped as <math>\textstyle\phi\,\!</math> (a circle with a vertical stroke through it) or as <math>\textstyle\varphi\,\!</math> (a curled shape open at the top). The symbol ϕ (U+03D5) is designated specifically for the closed form, used as a technical symbol.

Obsolete letters

The following letters are not part of the standard Greek alphabet, but were in use in pre-classical times in certain dialects. The letters digamma, qoppa, and sampi were also used as Greek numerals.

Letter	Corresponding Phoenician letter	Name		Transliteration	Pronunciation	Numeric value
Letter	Corresponding Phoenician letter	English	Greek (polytonic)	Transliteration	Pronunciation	Numeric value
Ϝ ϝ	Image:Phoenician waw.png Waw	Digamma	δίγαμμα	w	[w]	6
Ϻ ϻ	Image:Phoenician sade.svg Tsade (position) Image:Phoenician sin.png Sin (name)	San	σάν	s	[s]
Ϙ ϙ Ϟ ϟ (alternate)	Image:Phoenician qoph.svg Qoph	Qoppa		q	[k] before /u/, /o/	90
Ϡ ϡ	Origin disputed, possibly Image:Phoenician sade.svg Tsade	Sampi		ss	probably affricate, but exact value debated; [sː], [ks], [ts] are proposed	900

Digamma disappeared from the alphabet because the sound it notated, the voiced labial-velar approximant [w], had disappeared from the Ionic dialect and most of the others. It remained in use as a numeric sign denoting the number six. In this function, it was later conflated in medieval Greek handwriting with the ligature sign stigma (ϛ, denoting /st/), which had a similar shape in its lower case form.
Sampi (also called dissigma) notated a geminated affricate that later evolved to (probably [sː]) in most dialects, and (probably [tː]) in Attic. Its exact value is heavily discussed, but [ts] is often proposed. Its modern name is derived from its shape: (ὡ)σὰν πῖ "as if" or "like (the letter) pi".<ref name="titleGreek Letter Sampi">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation

|CitationClass=web }}</ref>

The order of the letters up to Τ follows that in the Phoenician or Hebrew alphabet.

Digraphs and diphthongs

Template:Further

A digraph is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. The orthography of Greek includes several digraphs, including various pairs of vowel letters that used to be pronounced as diphthongs but have been shortened to monophthongs in pronunciation. Many of these are characteristic developments of modern Greek, but some, such as ΟΥ (pronounced [uː]) and ΕΙ (pronounced [eː]), were already present in Classical Greek. None of them is regarded as a letter of the alphabet.

During the Byzantine period, it became customary to write the silent iota in digraphs as an iota subscript ().

Diacritics

Use of the Greek alphabet for other languages

The Greek alphabet has been adopted at various times and in various places to write other languages.<ref>see S. Macrakis, 1996 for bibliography</ref> For some languages, additional letters were introduced.

Antiquity

Most of the alphabets of Asia Minor, in use c. 800-300 BC to write languages like Lydian and Phrygian, were the early Greek alphabet with only slight modifications — as were the original Old Italic alphabets.
Some Paleo-Balkan languages, including Thracian. For other neighboring languages or dialects, such as Ancient Macedonian, isolated words are preserved in Greek texts, but no continuous texts are preserved.
Some Gaulish inscriptions (in modern France) use the Greek alphabet (c. 300 BC).
The Hebrew text of the Bible was written in Greek letters in Origen's Hexapla.
The Bactrian alphabet adds the letter Sho and was used to write the Bactrian language under the Kushan Empire (65-250 AD).<ref>New Findings in Ancient Afghanistan — the Bactrian documents discovered from the Northern Hindu-Kush, lecture by Prof. Nicholas Sims-Williams (University of London)</ref>
The Coptic alphabet adds eight letters derived from Demotic. It is still used today, mostly in Egypt, to write the Coptic language. Letters usually retain an uncial form different from the forms used for Greek today (compare with the forms of the Latin letters used in Gaelic script).

Middle Ages

An 8th century Arabic fragment preserves a text in the Greek alphabet.
An Old Ossetic inscription of the 10-12c AD found in Arxyz, the oldest known attestation of an Ossetic language.
The Old Nubian language of Makuria (modern Sudan) adds three Coptic letters, two letters derived from Meroitic script, and a digraph of two Greek gammas used for the velar nasal sound.
Various South Slavic dialects, similar to the modern Bulgarian and Macedonian languages, have been written in Greek script. The modern South Slavic languages now use modified Cyrillic alphabets.<ref>"Dva balgarski rakopisa s gracko pismo", Balgarski starini 6, 1920; André Mazon and André Vaillant, L'Evangelaire de Kulakia, un parler slave de Bas-Vardar, Bibliothèque d'études balkaniques 6, 1938; Jürgen Kristophson, "Das Lexicon Tetraglosson des Daniil Moschopolitis", Zeitschrift für Balkanologie 9:11; Max Demeter Peyfuss, Die Druckerei von Moschopolis, 1731-1769: Buchdruck und Heiligenverehrung in Erzbistum Achrida, Wiener Archiv für Geschichte des Slawentums und Osteuropas 13, 1989.</ref>

Early Modern

Turkish spoken by Orthodox Christians (Karamanlides) was often written in Greek script, and called Karamanlidika.
Tosk Albanian was often written using the Greek alphabet, starting in about 1500 (Elsie, 1991). The printing press at Moschopolis published several Albanian texts in Greek script during the 18th century. It was only in 1908 that the Monastir conference standardized a Latin orthography for both Tosk and Gheg. Greek spelling is still occasionally used for the local Albanian dialects (Arvanitika) in Greece.
Aromanian (Vlach) has been written in Greek characters. There is not yet a standardized orthography for Aromanian, but it appears that one based on the Romanian orthography will be adopted.
Gagauz, a Turkic language of the northeast Balkans.
Surguch, a Turkic language spoken by a small group of Orthodox Christians in northern Greece.
Urum or Greek Tatar.

Derived alphabets

The Greek alphabet gave rise to various others:<ref name="Blackwell" />

The Old Italic alphabets, and hence ultimately the modern Latin alphabet (and derivations) originate with the Cumae alphabet, a western variant of the early Greek alphabet
- The International Phonetic Alphabet contains many Latin and Greek letters.
The Gothic alphabet, devised in Late Antiquity to write the Gothic language
The Glagolitic alphabet, devised in the Middle Ages for writing Slavic languages
The Cyrillic alphabet, which replaced the Glagolitic alphabet shortly afterwards

It is also considered a possible ancestor of the Armenian alphabet, and had an influence on the development of the Georgian alphabet.

Greek in mathematics

Greek symbols are traditionally used as names in mathematics, physics and other sciences. When combined with Latin characters, the Latin characters usually indicate variables while the Greek ones indicate parameters. Many symbols have traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon (ε) for an arbitrarily small positive number, lower case pi (π) for the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, capital sigma (Σ) for summation, and lower case sigma (σ) for standard deviation.

Greek encodings

For the usage in computers, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in RFC 1947.

The two principal ones still used today are ISO/IEC 8859-7 and Unicode. ISO 8859-7 supports only the monotonic orthography; Unicode supports the polytonic orthography.

ISO/IEC 8859-7

For the range A0-FF (hex) it follows the Unicode range 370-3CF (see below) except that some symbols, like ©, ½, § etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings it is equal to ASCII for 00-7F (hex).

Greek in Unicode

Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for epigraphy. With the use of combining characters, Unicode also supports Greek philology and dialectology and various other specialized requirements. However, most current text rendering engines do not support combining characters well, so, though alpha with macron and acute can be represented as U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well: .<ref>For extended discussion of problematic Greek letter forms in Unicode see Greek Unicode Issues.</ref>

There are 2 main blocks of Greek characters in Unicode. The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF). This block is based on ISO 8859-7 and is sufficient to write Modern Greek. There are also some archaic letters and Greek-based technical symbols.

This block also supports the Coptic alphabet. Formerly most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with no Greek equivalents still remain in this block.

To write polytonic Greek, one may use combining diacritical marks or the precomposed characters in the "Greek Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF).

Greek and Coptic

	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	A	B	C	D	E	F
0370	Ͱ	ͱ	Ͳ	ͳ			Ͷ	ͷ				ͻ	ͼ	ͽ
0380
0390		Α	Β	Γ	Δ	Ε	Ζ	Η	Θ	Ι	Κ	Λ	Μ	Ν	Ξ	Ο
03A0	Π	Ρ		Σ	Τ	Υ	Φ	Χ	Ψ	Ω
03B0		α	β	γ	δ	ε	ζ	η	θ	ι	κ	λ	μ	ν	ξ	ο
03C0	π	ρ		σ	τ	υ	φ	χ	ψ	ω						Ϗ
03D0
03E0			(Coptic letters here)
03F0

Greek Extended (precomposed polytonic Greek)

	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	A	B	C	D	E	F
1F00
1F10
1F20
1F30
1F40
1F50
1F60
1F70
1F80
1F90
1FA0
1FB0
1FC0
1FD0
1FE0
1FF0

Combining and letter-free diacritics

Combining and spacing (letter-free) diacritical marks pertaining to Greek language:

combining	spacing	sample	description
U+0300	U+0060	( )	"varia / grave accent"
U+0301	U+00B4, U+0384	( )	"oxia / tonos / acute accent"
U+0304	U+00AF	( ̄)	"macron"
U+0306	U+02D8	( ̆)	"vrachy / breve"
U+0308	U+00A8	( ̈)	"dialytika / diaeresis"
U+0313	U+02BC	( ̓)	"psili / comma above" (spiritus lenis)
U+0314	U+02BD	( ̔)	"dasia / reversed comma above" (spiritus asper)
U+0342		( ͂)	"perispomeni" (circumflex)
U+0343		( ̓)	"koronis" (= U+0313)
U+0344	U+0385	( ̈́)	"dialytika tonos" (deprecated, = U+0308 U+0301)
U+0345	U+037A	( ͅ)	"ypogegrammeni / iota subscript".

Encodings with a subset of the Greek alphabet

IBM code pages 437, 860, 861, 862, 863, and 865 contain the letters ΓΘΣΦΩαδεπστφ (plus β as an alternate interpretation for ß).

Bibliography

Notes

External links

Typography

Collection of free fonts: greekfontsociety.gr

The King James Version 2023 Edition New Testament is now complete and in print format here.

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List of New Testament uncials

01 · 02 · 03 · 04 · 05 · 06 · 07 · 08 · 09 · 010 · 011 · 012 · 013 · 014 · 015 · 016 · 017 · 018 · 019 · 020 · 021 · 022 · 023 · 024 · 025 · 026 · 027 · 028 · 029 · 030 · 031 · 032 · 033 · 034 · 035 · 036 · 037 · 038 · 039 · 040 · 041 · 042 · 043 · 044 · 045 · 046 · 047 · 048 · 049 · 050 · 051 · 052 · 053 · 054 · 055 · 056 · 057 · 058 · 059 · 060 · 061 · 062 · 063 · 064 · 065 · 066 · 067 · 068 · 069 · 070 · 071 · 072 · 073 · 074 · 075 · 076 · 077 · 078 · 079 · 080 · 081 · 082 · 083 · 084 · 085 · 086 · 087 · 088 · 089 · 090 · 091 · 092 · 093 · 094 · 095 · 096 · 097 · 098 · 099 · 0100 · 0101 · 0102 · 0103 · 0104 · 0105 · 0106 · 0107 · 0108 · 0109 · 0110 · 0111 · 0112 · 0113 · 0114 · 0115 · 0116 · 0117 · 0118 · 0119 · 0120 · 0121 · 0122 · 0123 · 0124 · 0125 · 0126 · 0127 · 0128 · 0129 · 0130 · 0131 · 0132 · 0134 · 0135 · 0136 · 0137 · 0138 · 0139 · 0140 · 0141 · 0142 · 0143 · 0144 · 0145 · 0146 · 0147 · 0148 · 0149 · 0150 · 0151 · 0152 · 0153 · 0154 · 0155 · 0156 · 0157 · 0158 · 0159 · 0160 · 0161 · 0162 · 0163 · 0164 · 0165 · 0166 · 0167 · 0168 · 0169 · 0170 · 0171 · 0172 · 0173 · 0174 · 0175 · 0176 · 0177 · 0178 · 0179 · 0180 · 0181 · 0182 · 0183 · 0184 · 0185 · 0186 · 0187 · 0188 · 0189 · 0190 · 0191 · 0192 · 0193 · 0194 · 0195 · 0196 · 0197 · 0198 · 0199 · 0200 · 0201 · 0202 · 0203 · 0204 · 0205 · 0206 · 0207 · 0208 · 0209 · 0210 · 0211 · 0212 · 0213 · 0214 · 0215 · 0216 · 0217 · 0218 · 0219 · 0220 · 0221 · 0222 · 0223 · 0224 · 0225 · 0226 · 0227 · 0228 · 0229 · 0230 · 0231 · 0232 · 0234 · 0235 · 0236 · 0237 · 0238 · 0239 · 0240 · 0241 · 0242 · 0243 · 0244 · 0245 · 0246 · 0247 · 0248 · 0249 · 0250 · 0251 · 0252 · 0253 · 0254 · 0255 · 0256 · 0257 · 0258 · 0259 · 0260 · 0261 · 0262 · 0263 · 0264 · 0265 · 0266 · 0267 · 0268 · 0269 · 0270 · 0271 · 0272 · 0273 · 0274 · 0275 · 0276 · 0277 · 0278 · 0279 · 0280 · 0281 · 0282 · 0283 · 0284 · 0285 · 0286 · 0287 · 0288 · 0289 · 0290 · 0291 · 0292 · 0293 · 0294 · 0295 · 0296 · 0297 · 0298 · 0299 · 0300 · 0301 · 0302 · 0303 · 0304 · 0305 · 0306 · 0307 · 0308 · 0309 · 0310 · 0311 · 0312 · 0313 · 0314 · 0315 · 0316 · 0317 · 0318 · 0319 · 0320 · 0321 · 0322 · 0323 ·

List of New Testament lectionaries

1 · 2 · 3 · 4 · 5 · 6 · 7 · 8 · 9 · 10 · 11 · 12 · 13 · 14 · 15 · 16 · 17 · 18 · 19 · 20 · 21 · 22 · 23 · 24 · 25 · 25b · 26 · 27 · 28 · 29 · 30 · 31 · 32 · 33 · 34 · 35 · 36 · 37 · 38 · 39 · 40 · 41 · 42 · 43 · 44 · 45 · 46 · 47 · 48 · 49 · 50 · 51 · 52 · 53 · 54 · 55 · 56 · 57 · 58 · 59 · 60 · 61 · 62 · 63 · 64 · 65 · 66 · 67 · 68 · 69 · 70 · 71 · 72 · 73 · 74 · 75 · 76 · 77 · 78 · 79 · 80 · 81 · 82 · 83 · 84 · 85 · 86 · 87 · 88 · 89 · 90 · 91 · 92 · 93 · 94 · 95 · 96 · 97 · 98 · 99 · 100 · 101 · 102 · 103 · 104 · 105 · 106 · 107 · 108 · 109 · 110 · 111 · 112 · 113 · 114 · 115 · 116 · 117 · 118 · 119 · 120 · 121 · 122 · 123 · 124 · 125 · 126 · 127 · 128 · 129 · 130 · 131 · 132 · 133 · 134 · 135 · 136 · 137 · 138 · 139 · 140 · 141 · 142 · 143 · 144 · 145 · 146 · 147 · 148 · 149 · 150 · 151 · 152 · 153 · 154 · 155 · 156 · 157 · 158 · 159 · 160 · 161 · 162 · 163 · 164 · 165 · 166 · 167 · 168 · 169 · 170 · 171 · 172 · 173 · 174 · 175 · 176 · 177 · 178 · 179 · 180 · 181 · 182 · 183 · 184 · 185 · 186 · 187 · 188 · 189 · 190 · 191 · 192 · 193 · 194 · 195 · 196 · 197 · 198 · 199 · 200 · 201 · 202 · 203 · 204 · 205 · 206a · 206b · 207 · 208 · 209 · 210 · 211 · 212 · 213 · 214 · 215 · 216 · 217 · 218 · 219 · 220 · 221 · 222 · 223 · 224 · 225 · 226 · 227 · 228 · 229 · 230 · 231 · 232 · 233 · 234 · 235 · 236 · 237 · 238 · 239 · 240 · 241 · 242 · 243 · 244 · 245 · 246 · 247 · 248 · 249 · 250 · 251 · 252 · 253 · 254 · 255 · 256 · 257 · 258 · 259 · 260 · 261 · 262 · 263 · 264 · 265 · 266 · 267 · 268 · 269 · 270 · 271 · 272 · 273 · 274 · 275 · 276 · 277 · 278 · 279 · 280 · 281 · 282 · 283 · 284 · 285 · 286 · 287 · 288 · 289 · 290 · 291 · 292 · 293 · 294 · 295 · 296 · 297 · 298 · 299 · 300 · 301 · 302 · 303 · 304 · 305 · 306 · 307 · 308 · 309 · 310 · 311 · 312 · 313 · 314 · 315 · 316 · 317 · 318 · 319 · 320 · 321 · 322 · 323 · 324 · 325 · 326 · 327 · 328 · 329 · 330 · 331 · 332 · 368 · 449 · 451 · 501 · 502 · 542 · 560 · 561 · 562 · 563 · 564 · 648 · 649 · 809 · 965 · 1033 · 1358 · 1386 · 1491 · 1423 · 1561 · 1575 · 1598 · 1599 · 1602 · 1604 · 1614 · 1619 · 1623 · 1637 · 1681 · 1682 · 1683 · 1684 · 1685 · 1686 · 1691 · 1813 · 1839 · 1965 · 1966 · 1967 · 2005 · 2137 · 2138 · 2139 · 2140 · 2141 · 2142 · 2143 · 2144 · 2145 · 2164 · 2208 · 2210 · 2211 · 2260 · 2261 · 2263 · 2264 · 2265 · 2266 · 2267 · 2276 · 2307 · 2321 · 2352 · 2404 · 2405 · 2406 · 2411 · 2412 ·

New book available with irrefutable evidence for the reading in the TR and KJV.

Revelation 16:5 and the Triadic Declaration - A defense of the reading of “shalt be” in the Authorized Version

Greek alphabet

From Textus Receptus

Current revision

Contents

History

Letter names

Main letters

Variant forms

Obsolete letters

Digraphs and diphthongs

Diacritics

Use of the Greek alphabet for other languages

Antiquity

Middle Ages

Early Modern

Derived alphabets

Greek in mathematics

Greek encodings

ISO/IEC 8859-7

Greek in Unicode

Greek and Coptic

Greek Extended (precomposed polytonic Greek)

Combining and letter-free diacritics

Encodings with a subset of the Greek alphabet

See also

Bibliography

Notes

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Typography

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-Greek alphabet
+[[Image:Dipylon Inscription.JPG|thumb|[[Dipylon inscription]], one of the oldest known samples of the use of the Greek alphabet, ca. 740&nbsp;BC]]
-Letter Corresponding
+The '''Greek alphabet''' is a set of twenty-four letters that has been used to write the [[Greek language]] since the 8th century BC.<sup>[]</sup> It is still in use today. It is the first and oldest [[alphabet]] in the narrow sense that it notes each [[vowel]] and [[consonant]] with a separate symbol.<sup>[]</sup> The letters were also used to represent [[Greek numerals]], beginning in the 2nd century BC.
-Phoenician
-letter Name Transliteration1 Pronunciation Numeric
-value
-English Ancient
-Greek Medieval
-Greek
-(polytonic) Modern
-Greek
-(info) Ancient
-Greek Modern
-Greek Classical
-Ancient
-Greek Modern
-Greek
-Α α  Aleph Alpha ἄλφα άλφα a [a] [aː] [a] 1
-Β β  Beth Beta βῆτα βήτα b v [b] [v] 2
-Γ γ  Gimel Gamma γάμμα γάμμα
-γάμα g gh, g, y [g] [ɣ], [ʝ] 3
-Δ δ  Daleth Delta δέλτα δέλτα d d, dh [d] [ð] 4
-Ε ε  He Epsilon εἶ ἒ ψιλόν έψιλον e [e] 5
-Ζ ζ  Zayin Zeta ζῆτα ζήτα z [zd]
-(or [dz])
-later [zː] [z] 7
-Η η  Heth Eta ἦτα ήτα e, ē i [ɛː] [i] 8
-Θ θ  Teth Theta θῆτα θήτα th [tʰ] [θ] 9
-Ι ι  Yodh Iota ἰῶτα ιώτα
-γιώτα i [i] [iː] [i], [ʝ] 10
-Κ κ  Kaph Kappa κάππα κάππα
-κάπα k [k] [k], [c] 20
-Λ λ  Lamedh Lambda λάβδα λάμβδα λάμδα
-λάμβδα l [l] 30
-Μ μ  Mem Mu μῦ μι
-μυ m [m] 40
-Ν ν  Nun Nu νῦ νι
-νυ n [n] 50
-Ξ ξ  Samekh Xi ξεῖ ξῖ ξι x x, ks [ks] 60
-Ο ο  'Ayin Omicron οὖ ὂ μικρόν όμικρον o [o] 70
-Π π  Pe Pi πεῖ πῖ πι p [p] 80
-Ρ ρ  Resh Rho ῥῶ ρω r (ῥ: rh) r [r], [r̥] [r] 100
-Σ σ ς  Sin Sigma σῖγμα σίγμα s [s] 200
-Τ τ  Taw Tau ταῦ ταυ t [t] 300
-Υ υ  Waw Upsilon ὖ ὖ ψιλόν ύψιλον u, y y, v, f [y] [yː]
-(earlier [ʉ] [ʉː]) [i] 400
-Φ φ origin disputed
-(see text) Phi φεῖ φῖ φι ph f [pʰ] [f] 500
-Χ χ Chi χεῖ χῖ χι ch ch, kh [kʰ] [x], [ç] 600
-Ψ ψ Psi ψεῖ ψῖ ψι ps [ps] 700
-Ω ω  'Ayin Omega ὦ ὦ μέγα ωμέγα o, ō o [ɔː] [o] 800
+The Greek alphabet is descended from the [[Phoenician alphabet]], and is not related to [[Linear B]] or the [[Cypriot syllabary]], earlier writing systems for Greek. It has given rise to many other alphabets used in [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]], including the [[Latin alphabet]].<sup>[]</sup> In addition to being used for writing [[Ancient Greek|Ancient]] and  [[Modern Greek]], its letters are today used as [[Greek letters used in mathematics|symbols in mathematics and science]], as [[particle physics|particle names]] in physics, as components of [[Astronomical naming conventions#Names of stars|star names]], in the names of [[fraternities and sororities]], in the [[Lists of tropical cyclone names|naming of supernumerary tropical cyclones]], and for other purposes.
-==External Links==
+In traditional ("polytonic") Greek orthography, vowel letters can be combined with several [[Greek diacritics|diacritics]], including accent marks, so-called "breathing" marks, and the [[iota subscript]]. In common present-day usage for Modern Greek since the 1980s, this system has been simplified to a so-called "monotonic" convention.
-*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabet Wikipedia Article on the Greek Alphabet]
+== History ==
+See Also [[History of the Greek alphabet]]
+[[Image:Griechisches Alphabet Varianten.png|thumb|200px|Variations of ancient Greek alphabets]]
+The Greek alphabet emerged in the late 9th century BC or early 8th century BC<sup>[]</sup> centuries after the fall of the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] civilization and consequent abandonment of its [[Linear B]] script, an early [[Greek language|Greek]] writing system. Linear B is descended from [[Linear A]], which was developed by the [[Minoan civilization|Minoans]], whose language was probably unrelated to the Greek language; consequently the Minoan syllabary did not provide an ideal medium for the transliteration of the sounds of the Greek language.
+The Greek alphabet we recognize today arose after the [[Greek Dark Ages]], i.e. the period between the downfall of [[Mycenae]] (c. 1200 BC) and the rise of [[Ancient Greece]], which begins with the appearance of the epics of [[Homer]], around 800 BC, and the institution of the [[Ancient Olympic Games]] in 776 BC. Its most notable change, as an adaptation of the [[Phoenician alphabet]], is the introduction of vowel letters, without which Greek would be illegible.<sup>[]</sup>
+Vowel signs were originally not used in Semitic alphabets. (Although the old [[Ugaritic alphabet]] did develop ''[[matres lectionis]]'', i.e., use of consonant letters to denote vowels, they were never employed systematically.) In the earlier [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]] family of scripts ([[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], [[Hebrew]], [[Moabite language|Moabite]] etc.), a letter always stood for a consonant in association with an unspecified vowel or no vowel. This did not reduce legibility because words in [[Semitic languages]] are based on [[Semitic root|consonant roots]] that make meaning clear with only the consonants present, and vowels are clear from context.  By contrast, Greek is an [[Indo-European language]], and thus differences in vowels make for vast differences in meanings. Thus, Greek grammarians divided the letters into two categories, [[vowel]]s and [[consonant]]s, which had to be accompanied by vowels to create a pronounceable unit.<sup>[]</sup>
+The first vowel [[Letter (alphabet)|letters]] were Α ([[Alpha (letter)|alpha]]), Ε ([[epsilon]]), Ι ([[iota]]), Ο ([[omicron]]), and Υ ([[upsilon]]), modifications of Semitic glottal, pharyngeal, or glide [[consonant]]s that were mostly superfluous in Greek: /ʔ/ (''[[aleph|'aleph]]''), /h/ (''[[he (letter)|he]]''), /j/ (''[[yodh]]''), /ʕ/ (''[[Ayin|ʿayin]]''), and /w/ (''[[waw (letter)|waw]]''), respectively. In eastern Greek, which lacked aspiration entirely, the letter Η ([[Eta (letter)|eta]]), from the Semitic glottal consonant /ħ/ (''[[heth]]'') was also used for the long vowel /ɛː/, and eventually the letter Ω ([[omega]]) was introduced for a long /ɔː/. The reason for having individual letters for long open ''e'' and ''o'' lies in verb forms. Classical Greek distinguished between [[Grammatical mood|indicative]] and [[Grammatical mood|subjunctive]] by [[Apophony|alternating]] between /e/ and /ɛː/ or /o/ and /ɔː/. Most of the other vowels were not involved in such alternations, so their [[vowel length|lengths]] did not need to be distinguished in writing.
+Greek also introduced three new consonant letters, Φ ([[Phi (letter)|phi]]), Χ ([[Chi (letter)|chi]]) and Ψ ([[Psi (letter)|psi]]), appended to the end of the alphabet as they were developed. These consonants made up for the lack of comparable [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirates]] in Phoenician. In western Greek, Χ was used for /ks/ and Ψ for /kʰ/ — hence the value of the Latin letter ''X'', derived from the [[western Greek alphabet]]. The origin of these letters is disputed.
+The letter Ϻ ([[San (letter)|san]]) was used as a variant of Σ ([[sigma]]). By classical times sigma had won, and san disappeared from the alphabet. The letters Ϝ (wau, later called [[digamma]]) and Ϙ ([[qoppa]]) also fell into disuse. The former was only needed for the western dialects, and the latter was never truly needed at all. But these letters lived on in the [[Ionic numeral system]], which consisted of writing a series of letters with precise numerical values. Ϡ ([[sampi]]), apparently a rare local [[glyph]] form from Ionia, was introduced at latter times to stand for 900. Thousands were written using a mark at the upper left ('A for 1000, etc.).
+Because Greek [[Lower case|minuscules]] arose at a much later date, no historic minuscule actually exists for san. Minuscule forms for the other letters were only used as numbers. For the number 6, modern Greeks use an old [[Ligature (typography)|ligature]] called [[Stigma (letter)|stigma]] <font size="2">(Ϛ, ϛ)</font> instead of digamma, or ΣΤ/στ if this is not available. For 90 the modern ''Z''-shaped qoppa forms were used: <font size="3"> Ϟ, ϟ</font>. ''(Note that some web browser/font combinations will show the other qoppa here.)''
+Originally there were several variants of the Greek alphabet, most importantly [[Western Greek alphabet|western]] (Chalcidian) and eastern (Ionic) Greek. The former gave rise to the [[Old Italic alphabet]] and thence to the [[Latin alphabet]], while the latter is the basis of the present Greek alphabet. [[Athens]] originally used the Attic script for official documents such as laws and the works of Homer: this contained only the letters from alpha to upsilon, and used the letter eta for the sound "h" instead of the long "e". In 403 BC, Athens adopted the Ionic script as its standard, and soon the other versions disappeared.
+[[Image:NAMA Alphabet grec.jpg|thumb|right|Early Greek alphabet on pottery in the [[National Archaeological Museum of Athens]]]]
+By then Greek was written left to right, but originally it had been written right to left (with asymmetrical characters flipped), and in-between written either way — or, most likely, in the so-called ''[[boustrophedon]]'' style, where successive lines alternate direction.
+In the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic period]], [[Aristophanes of Byzantium]] introduced [[diacritic]]s to Greek letters, for pronunciation specificity. During the [[Middle Ages]], the Greek scripts underwent changes paralleling those of the Latin alphabet: while the old forms were retained as a monumental script, [[Uncial script|uncial]] and eventually minuscule hands came to dominate. The letter σ is even written ς at the ends of words, paralleling the use of the Latin [[Long s|long and short ''s'']].
+=== Letter names ===
+Each of the Phoenician letter names was a word that began with the sound represented by that letter; thus ''[[Aleph|ʾaleph]]'', the word for "ox", was adopted for the glottal stop /ʔ/, ''[[Bet (letter)|bet]]'', or "house", for the /b/ sound, and so on. When the letters were adopted by the Greeks, most of the Phoenician names were maintained or modified slightly to fit Greek phonology; thus, ''ʾaleph, bet, gimel'' became ''alpha, beta, gamma''. These borrowed names had no meaning in Greek except as labels for the letters. However, a few signs that were added or modified later by the Greeks do in fact have names with meanings. For example, ''o mikron'' and ''o mega'' mean "small o" and "big o". Similarly, ''e psilon'' and ''u psilon'' mean "plain e" and "plain u", respectively.
+== Main letters ==
+Below is a table listing the Greek letters, as well as their forms when [[romanization|romanized]]. The table also provides the equivalent [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician letter]] from which each Greek letter is derived. Pronunciations transcribed using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]].
+The classical pronunciation given below is the reconstructed pronunciation of Attic in the late 5th and early 4th century BC. Some of the letters had different pronunciations in pre-classical times or in non-Attic dialects. For details, see [[History of the Greek alphabet]] and [[Ancient Greek phonology]]. For details on post-classical Ancient Greek pronunciation, see [[Koine Greek phonology]].
+{| class="wikitable"
+|-
+!rowspan="2" style="background:#ccf;"|Letter
+!rowspan="2" style="background:#ccf;"|Corresponding<br />[[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]]<br />letter
+!colspan="4" style="background:#ccf;"|Name
+!colspan="2" style="background:#ccf;"|[[Transliteration of Greek to the Latin alphabet|Transliteration]]<sup>1</sup> <!-- footnote explains caveats -->
+!colspan="2" style="background:#ccf;"|[[International Phonetic Alphabet|Pronunciation]]
+!rowspan="2" style="background:#ccf;"|[[Greek numerals|Numeric<br />value]]
+|-
+! style="background:#cff;"|English
+! style="background:#cff;"|Ancient<br />Greek
+! style="background:#cff;"|Medieval<br />Greek<br />([[polytonic orthography|polytonic]])
+! style="background:#cff;"|Modern<br />Greek
+! style="background:#cff;"|Ancient<br />Greek
+! style="background:#cff;"|Modern<br />Greek
+! style="background:#cff;"|Classical<br />Ancient<br />Greek
+! style="background:#cff;"|Modern<br />Greek
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Α α
+|[[Image:Phoenician aleph.png|x16px|Aleph]] [[Aleph (letter)|Aleph]]
+|[[Alpha (letter)|Alpha]]
+|colspan="2"|ἄλφα
+|άλφα
+|colspan="2"|a
+|[a] [aː]
+|[a]
+|1
+|-
+|<span style="font-size:133%;">Β β
+|[[Image:Phoenician beth.png|x16px|Beth]] [[Beth (letter)|Beth]]
+|[[Beta (letter)|Beta]]
+|colspan="2"|βῆτα
+|βήτα
+|b
+|v
+|[b]
+|[v]
+|2
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Γ γ
+|[[Image:Phoenician gimel.png|x16px|Gimel]] [[Gimel (letter)|Gimel]]
+|[[Gamma (letter)|Gamma]]
+|colspan="2"|γάμμα
+|γάμ(μ)α
+|g
+|gh, g, y
+|[ɡ]
+|[ɣ], [ʝ]
+|3
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Δ δ
+|[[Image:Phoenician daleth.svg|x16px|Daleth]] [[Daleth]]
+|[[Delta (letter)|Delta]]
+|colspan="2"|δέλτα
+|δέλτα
+|d
+|d, dh
+|[d]
+|[ð]
+|4
+|-
+|<span style="font-size:133%;">Ε ε
+|[[Image:Phoenician he.svg|x16px|He]] [[He (letter)|He]]
+|[[Epsilon]]
+|εἶ
+|ἒ ψιλόν
+|έψιλον
+|colspan="2"|e
+|colspan="2"|[e]
+|5
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Ζ ζ
+|[[Image:Phoenician zayin.png|x16px|Zayin]] [[Zayin]]
+|[[Zeta (letter)|Zeta]]
+|colspan="2"|ζῆτα
+|ζήτα
+|colspan="2"|z
+|[[Zeta (letter)#Pronunciation|[zd, dz, zː] ]](?)
+|[z]
+|7
+|-
+|<span style="font-size:133%;">Η η
+|[[Image:Phoenician heth.png|x16px|Heth]] [[Heth (letter)|Heth]]
+|[[Eta (letter)|Eta]]
+|colspan="2"|ἦτα
+|ήτα
+|e, ē
+|i
+|[ɛː]
+|[i]
+|8
+|-
+|<span style="font-size:133%;">Θ θ
+|[[Image:Phoenician teth.svg|x16px|Teth]] [[Teth]]
+|[[Theta (letter)|Theta]]
+|colspan="2"|θῆτα
+|θήτα
+|colspan="2"|th
+|[tʰ]
+|[θ]
+|9
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Ι ι
+|[[Image:Phoenician yodh.png|x16px|Yodh]] [[Yodh]]
+|[[Iota (letter)|Iota]]
+|colspan="2"|ἰῶτα
+|(γ)ιώτα
+|colspan="2"|i
+|[i] [iː]
+|[i], [ʝ]
+|10
+|-
+|<span style="font-size:133%;">Κ κ
+|[[Image:Phoenician kaph.png|x16px|Kaph]] [[Kaph]]
+|[[Kappa (letter)|Kappa]]
+|colspan="2"|κάππα
+|κάπ(π)α
+|colspan="2"|k
+|[k]
+|[k], [c]
+|20
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Λ λ
+|[[Image:Phoenician lamedh.png|x16px|Lamedh]] [[Lamedh]]
+|[[Lambda (letter)|Lambda]]
+|λάβδα
+|λάμβδα
+|λάμ(β)δα
+|colspan="2"|l
+|colspan="2"|[l]
+|30
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Μ μ
+|[[Image:Phoenician mem.png|x16px|Mem]] [[Mem]]
+|[[Mu (letter)|Mu]]
+|colspan="2"|μῦ
+|μι/μυ
+|colspan="2"|m
+|colspan="2"|[m]
+|40
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Ν ν
+|[[Image:Phoenician nun.png|x16px|Nun]] [[Nun (letter)|Nun]]
+|[[Nu (letter)|Nu]]
+|colspan="2"|νῦ
+|νι/νυ
+|colspan="2"|n
+|colspan="2"|[n]
+|50
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Ξ ξ
+|[[Image:Phoenician samekh.svg|x16px|Samekh]] [[Samekh]]
+|[[Xi (letter)|Xi]]
+|ξεῖ
+|ξῖ
+|ξι
+|x
+|x, ks
+|colspan="2"|[ks]
+|60
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Ο ο
+|[[Image:Phoenician ayin.png|x16px|Ayin]] [[Ayin|'Ayin]]
+|[[Omicron]]
+|οὖ
+|ὂ μικρόν
+|όμικρον
+|colspan="2"|o
+|colspan="2"|[o]
+|70
+|-
+|<span style="font-size:133%;">Π π
+|[[Image:Phoenician pe.png|x16px|Pe]] [[Pe (letter)|Pe]]
+|[[Pi (letter)|Pi]]
+|πεῖ
+|πῖ
+|πι
+|colspan="2"|p
+|colspan="2"|[p]
+|80
+|-
+|<span style="font-size:133%;">Ρ ρ
+|[[Image:Phoenician res.png|x16px|Res]] [[Resh]]
+|[[Rho (letter)|Rho]]
+|colspan="2"|ῥῶ
+|ρω
+|r, rh
+|r
+|[r], [r̥]
+|[r]
+|100
+|-
+|<span style="font-size:133%;">Σ σ ς
+|[[Image:Phoenician sin.png|x16px|Sin]] [[Shin (letter)|Sin]]
+|[[Sigma (letter)|Sigma]]
+|colspan="2"|σῖγμα
+|σίγμα
+|colspan="2"|s
+|colspan="2"|[s]
+|200
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Τ τ
+|[[Image:Phoenician taw.png|x16px|Taw]] [[Taw (letter)|Taw]]
+|[[Tau (letter)|Tau]]
+|colspan="2"|ταῦ
+|ταυ
+|colspan="2"|t
+|colspan="2"|[t]
+|300
+|-
+|<span style="font-size:133%;">Υ υ
+|[[Image:Phoenician waw.png|x16px|Waw]] [[Waw (letter)|Waw]]
+|[[Upsilon (letter)|Upsilon]]
+|ὖ
+|ὖ ψιλόν
+|ύψιλον
+|u, y
+|y, v, f
+|[ʉ(ː)], [y(ː)]
+|[i]
+|400
+|-
+|<span style="font-size:133%;">Φ φ
+|rowspan="3"|origin disputed<br />(see text)
+|[[Phi (letter)|Phi]]
+|φεῖ
+|φῖ
+|φι
+|ph
+|f
+|[pʰ]
+|[f]
+|500
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Χ χ
+|[[Chi (letter)|Chi]]
+|χεῖ
+|χῖ
+|χι
+|ch
+|ch, kh
+|[kʰ]
+|[x], [ç]
+|600
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Ψ ψ
+|[[Psi (letter)|Psi]]
+|ψεῖ
+|ψῖ
+|ψι
+|colspan="2"|ps
+|colspan="2"|[ps]
+|700
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Ω ω
+|[[Image:Phoenician ayin.png|x16px|Ayin]] [[Ayin|'Ayin]]
+|[[Omega]]
+|ὦ
+|ὦ μέγα
+|ωμέγα
+|o, ō
+|o
+|[ɔː]
+|[o]
+|800
+|}
+# For details and different transliteration systems see [[Romanization of Greek]].
+=== Variant forms ===
+Some letters can occur in variant shapes, mostly inherited from medieval [[History of the Greek alphabet#Later developments|minuscule]] handwriting. While their use in normal typography of Greek is purely a matter of font styles, some such variants have been given separate encodings in [[Unicode]].
+*The symbol ϐ ("curled beta") is a cursive variant form of [[Beta (letter)|beta]] (β).  In the French tradition of Ancient Greek typography, β is used word-initially, and ϐ is used word-internally.
+*The letter [[epsilon]] can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped <math>\epsilon\,\!</math> ('lunate epsilon', like a semicircle with a stroke) or <math>\varepsilon\,\!</math> (similar to a reversed number 3). The symbol ϵ (U+03F5) is designated specifically for the lunate form, used as a technical symbol.
+*The symbol ϑ ("script theta") is a cursive form of [[theta]] (θ), frequent in handwriting, and used with a specialized meaning as a technical symbol.
+*The symbol ϰ ("kappa symbol") is a cursive form of [[kappa]] (κ), used as a technical symbol.
+*The symbol ϖ ("variant pi") is an archaic script form of [[pi]] (π), also used as a technical symbol.
+*The letter [[rho (letter)|rho]] (ρ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the descending tail either going straight down or curled to the right. The symbol ϱ (U+03F1) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as a technical symbol.
+*The letter [[sigma]], in standard orthography, has two variants: ς, used only at the ends of words, and σ, used elsewhere. The form ϲ ("lunate sigma", resembling a Latin ''[[c]]'') is a medieval stylistic variant that can be used in both environments without the final/non-final distinction.
+*The capital letter [[upsilon]] (Υ) can occur in different stylistic variants, with the upper strokes either straight like a Latin ''Y'', or slightly curled. The symbol ϒ (U+03D2) is designated specifically for the curled form, used as a technical symbol.
+*The letter [[Phi (letter)|phi]] can occur in two equally frequent stylistic variants, either shaped as <math>\textstyle\phi\,\!</math> (a circle with a vertical stroke through it) or as <math>\textstyle\varphi\,\!</math> (a curled shape open at the top). The symbol ϕ (U+03D5) is designated specifically for the closed form, used as a technical symbol.
+== Obsolete letters ==
+The following letters are not part of the standard Greek alphabet, but were in use in pre-classical times in certain dialects. The letters digamma, qoppa, and sampi were also used as [[Greek numerals]].
+{|border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center"
+|-
+!rowspan="2" style="background:#ccf;"|Letter
+!rowspan="2" style="background:#ccf;"|Corresponding<br />[[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]]<br />letter
+!colspan="2" style="background:#ccf;"|Name
+!rowspan="2" style="background:#ccf;"|[[Transliteration of Greek to the Latin alphabet|Transliteration]]
+!rowspan="2" style="background:#ccf;"|Pronunciation
+!rowspan="2" style="background:#ccf;"|[[Greek numerals|Numeric value]]
+|-
+! style="background:#cff;"|English
+! style="background:#cff;"|Greek<br />([[polytonic orthography|polytonic]])
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Ϝ ϝ
+|[[Image:Phoenician waw.png|20px|Waw]] [[Waw (letter)|Waw]]
+|[[Digamma]]
+|δίγαμμα
+|w
+|{{IPA|[w]}}
+|6
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Ϻ ϻ
+|[[Image:Phoenician sade.svg|20px|Sade]] [[Tsade]] (position)<br />[[Image:Phoenician sin.png|20px|Sin]] [[Shin (letter)|Sin]] (name)
+|[[San (letter)|San]]
+|σάν
+|s
+|{{IPA|[s]}}
+|
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Ϙ ϙ<br />Ϟ ϟ</span> (alternate)
+|[[Image:Phoenician qoph.svg|20px|Qoph]] [[Qoph]]
+|[[Qoppa]]
+|{{polytonic|κόππα}}
+|q
+|{{IPA|[k]}} before /u/, /o/
+|90
+|-
+|style="font-size:133%;"|Ϡ ϡ</span>
+|Origin disputed,<br />possibly [[Image:Phoenician sade.svg|20px|Sade]] [[Tsade]]
+|[[Sampi]]
+|{{polytonic|σαμπῖ}}
+|ss
+|probably affricate,<br />but exact value debated;<br />{{IPA|[sː]}}, {{IPA|[ks]}}, {{IPA|[ts]}} are proposed
+|900
+|}
+*Digamma disappeared from the alphabet because the sound it notated, the [[voiced labial-velar approximant]] {{IPA|[w]}}, had disappeared from the [[Ionic Greek|Ionic dialect]] and most of the others. It remained in use as a numeric sign denoting the number six. In this function, it was later conflated in medieval Greek handwriting with the ligature sign ''stigma'' ({{unicode|ϛ}}, denoting /st/), which had a similar shape in its lower case form.
+*Sampi (also called ''dissigma'') notated a [[Gemination|geminated]] [[Affricate consonant|affricate]] that later evolved to {{polytonic|-σσ-}} (probably {{IPA|[sː]}}) in most dialects, and {{polytonic|-ττ-}} (probably {{IPA|[tː]}}) in [[Attic Greek|Attic]]. Its exact value is heavily discussed, but {{IPA|[ts]}} is often proposed. Its modern name is derived from its shape: (ὡ)σὰν πῖ "as if" or "like (the letter) pi".<ref name="titleGreek Letter Sampi">{{cite web|url=http://www.parthia.com/fonts/sampi.htm|title=Greek Letter Sampi|accessdate=2008-01-04|work=}}</ref>
+The order of the letters up to Τ follows that in the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] or [[Hebrew]] alphabet.
+== Digraphs and diphthongs ==
+{{further|[[Greek orthography]]}}
+A [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] is a pair of letters used to write one sound or a combination of sounds that does not correspond to the written letters in sequence. The orthography of Greek includes several digraphs, including various pairs of vowel letters that used to be pronounced as [[diphthong]]s but have been shortened to [[monophthong]]s in pronunciation. Many of these are characteristic developments of modern Greek, but some, such as ΟΥ (pronounced {{IPA|[uː]}}) and ΕΙ (pronounced {{IPA|[eː]}}), were already present in Classical Greek. None of them is regarded as a letter of the alphabet.
+During the [[Medieval Greek|Byzantine period]], it became customary to write the [[silent letter|silent]] iota in digraphs as an [[iota subscript]] ({{polytonic|ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ}}).
+== Diacritics ==
+See Also [[Greek diacritics]]
+In the [[polytonic orthography]] traditionally used for ancient Greek, vowels can carry [[diacritic]]s, namely accents and breathings. The accents are the [[acute accent]] (´), the [[grave accent]] (`), and the [[circumflex accent]] (ˆ). In Ancient Greek, these accents marked different forms of the [[pitch accent]] on a vowel. By the end of the Roman period, pitch accent had evolved into a [[Stress (linguistics)|stress accent]], and in later Greek all of these accents marked the stressed vowel. The breathings are the [[Spiritus asper|rough breathing]] (῾), marking an /h/ sound at the beginning of a word, and the [[Spiritus lenis|smooth breathing]] (᾽), marking the absence of an /h/ sound at the beginning of a word. The letter rho (ρ), although not a vowel, always carries a rough breathing when it begins a word. Another diacritic used in Greek is the [[Double dot (diacritic)|diaeresis]] (¨), indicating a [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]].
+In 1982, the old spelling system, known as polytonic, was simplified to become the monotonic system, which is now official in Greece. The accents have been reduced to one, the ''tonos'', and the breathings were abolished.
+== Use of the Greek alphabet for other languages ==
+The Greek alphabet has been adopted at various times and in various places  to write other languages.<ref>see S. Macrakis, 1996 for bibliography</ref> For some languages, additional letters were introduced.
+=== Antiquity ===
+*Most of the [[alphabets of Asia Minor]], in use c. 800-300 BC to write languages like [[Lydian language|Lydian]] and [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]], were the early Greek alphabet with only slight modifications — as were the original [[Old Italic alphabet]]s.
+*Some [[Paleo-Balkan languages]], including [[Thracian language|Thracian]]. For other neighboring languages or dialects, such as [[Ancient Macedonian language|Ancient Macedonian]], isolated words are preserved in Greek texts, but no continuous texts are preserved.
+*Some [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] inscriptions (in modern France) use the Greek alphabet (c. 300 BC).
+*The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] text of the [[Bible]] was written in Greek letters in [[Origen]]'s [[Hexapla]].
+*The Bactrian alphabet adds the letter [[Sho (letter)|Sho]] and was used to write the [[Bactrian language]] under the [[Kushan Empire]] (65-250 AD).<ref>[http://www.gengo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~hkum/bactrian.html New Findings in Ancient Afghanistan — the Bactrian documents discovered from the Northern Hindu-Kush], lecture by Prof. Nicholas Sims-Williams (University of London)</ref>
+*The [[Coptic alphabet]] adds eight letters derived from [[Demotic (Egyptian)|Demotic]]. It is still used today, mostly in Egypt, to write the [[Coptic language]]. Letters usually retain an [[Uncial script|uncial form]] different from the forms used for Greek today (compare with the forms of the Latin letters used in [[Gaelic script]]).
+===Middle Ages===
+*An 8th century [[Arabic language|Arabic]] fragment preserves a text in the Greek alphabet.
+*An [[Ossetic language|Old Ossetic]] inscription of the 10-12c AD found in [[Arxyz]], the oldest known attestation of an Ossetic language.
+*The [[Old Nubian language]] of [[Makuria]] (modern Sudan) adds three Coptic letters, two letters derived from [[Meroitic script]], and a digraph of two Greek gammas used for the [[velar nasal]] sound.
+*Various [[South Slavic languages|South Slavic]] dialects, similar to the modern [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Macedonian language]]s, have been written in Greek script. The modern South Slavic languages now use modified [[Cyrillic alphabet]]s.<!--see footnote in Macrakis 1996--><ref>"Dva balgarski rakopisa s gracko pismo", ''Balgarski starini'' '''6''', 1920; André Mazon and André Vaillant, ''L'Evangelaire de Kulakia, un parler slave de Bas-Vardar'', Bibliothèque d'études balkaniques '''6''', 1938; Jürgen Kristophson, "Das Lexicon Tetraglosson des Daniil Moschopolitis", ''Zeitschrift für Balkanologie'' '''9''':11; Max Demeter Peyfuss, ''Die Druckerei von Moschopolis, 1731-1769: Buchdruck und Heiligenverehrung in Erzbistum Achrida'', Wiener Archiv für Geschichte des Slawentums und Osteuropas '''13''', 1989.</ref>
+===Early Modern===
+*[[Turkish language|Turkish]] spoken by [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]] (''[[Karamanlides]]'') was often written in Greek script, and called ''[[Karamanli Turkish|Karamanlidika]]''.
+*[[Tosk language|Tosk]] [[Albanian language|Albanian]] was often written using the Greek alphabet, starting in about 1500 (Elsie, 1991). The printing press at [[Moschopolis]] published several Albanian texts in Greek script during the 18th century. It was only in 1908 that the [[Bitola|Monastir]] conference standardized a [[Albanian alphabet|Latin orthography]] for both Tosk and [[Gheg language|Gheg]]. Greek spelling is still occasionally used for the local Albanian dialects ([[Arvanitika]]) in Greece.
+*[[Aromanian language|Aromanian]] (Vlach) has been written in Greek characters. There is not yet a standardized orthography for Aromanian, but it appears that one based on the [[Romanian language|Romanian]] orthography will be adopted.
+*[[Gagauz language|Gagauz]], a [[Turkic language]] of the northeast Balkans.
+*[[Surguch]], a [[Turkic language]] spoken by a small group of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]] in northern Greece.
+*[[Urum language|Urum]] or Greek Tatar.
+== Derived alphabets ==
+The Greek alphabet gave rise to various others:<ref name="Blackwell" />
+*The [[Old Italic alphabets]], and hence ultimately the modern [[History of the Latin alphabet|Latin alphabet]] ([[Latin-derived alphabet|and derivations]]) originate with the  [[Cumae alphabet]], a western variant of the early Greek alphabet
+**The [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] contains many Latin and Greek letters.
+*The [[Gothic alphabet]], devised in [[Late Antiquity]] to write the [[Gothic language]]
+*The [[Glagolitic alphabet]], devised in the [[Middle Ages]] for writing [[Slavic languages]]
+*The [[Cyrillic alphabet]], which replaced the Glagolitic alphabet shortly afterwards
+It is also considered a possible ancestor of the [[Armenian alphabet]], and had an influence on the development of the [[Georgian alphabet]].
+== Greek in mathematics ==
+See Also [[Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering]]
+Greek symbols are traditionally used as names in [[mathematics]], [[physics]] and other [[science]]s.  When combined with Latin characters, the Latin characters usually indicate [[Variable (mathematics)|variables]] while the Greek ones indicate [[parameters]].  Many symbols have traditional uses, such as lower case epsilon (ε) for [[Limit (mathematics)|an arbitrarily small positive number]], lower case pi (π) for the [[Pi|ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter]], capital sigma (Σ) for [[summation]], and lower case sigma (σ) for [[standard deviation]].
+== Greek encodings ==
+For the usage in computers, a variety of encodings have been used for Greek online, many of them documented in RFC 1947.
+The two principal ones still used today are [[ISO/IEC 8859-7]] and [[Unicode]]. ISO 8859-7 supports only the monotonic orthography; Unicode supports the polytonic orthography.
+=== ISO/IEC 8859-7 ===
+For the range A0-FF (hex) it follows the Unicode range 370-3CF (see below) except that some symbols, like ©, ½, § etc. are used where Unicode has unused locations. Like all ISO-8859 encodings it is equal to ASCII for 00-7F (hex).
+=== Greek in Unicode ===
+Unicode supports polytonic orthography well enough for ordinary continuous text in modern and ancient Greek, and even many archaic forms for [[epigraphy]]. With the use of [[combining character]]s, Unicode also supports Greek [[philology]] and [[dialectology]] and various other specialized requirements. However, most current text rendering engines do not support combining characters well, so, though alpha with [[macron]] and [[acute accent|acute]] can be ''represented'' as U+03B1 U+0304 U+0301, this rarely renders well: {{Polytonic|ᾱ́}}.<ref>For extended discussion of problematic Greek letter forms in Unicode see [http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/unicode.html Greek Unicode Issues].</ref>
+There are 2 main blocks of Greek characters in [[Unicode]].
+The first is "Greek and Coptic" (U+0370 to U+03FF).
+This block is based on [[ISO 8859-7]] and is sufficient to write Modern Greek.
+There are also some archaic letters and Greek-based technical symbols.
+This block also supports the [[Coptic alphabet]]. Formerly most Coptic letters shared codepoints with similar-looking Greek letters; but in many scholarly works, both scripts occur, with quite different letter shapes, so as of
+Unicode 4.1, Coptic and Greek were disunified. Those Coptic letters with
+no Greek equivalents still remain in this block.
+To write polytonic Greek, one may use [[combining diacritical mark]]s or the precomposed characters in the "Greek Extended" block (U+1F00 to U+1FFF).
+==== Greek and Coptic ====
+{|border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
+|- style="background:#ddd"
+! style="width:7.2%;"|&nbsp;!! style="width:5.8%;"|0!! style="width:5.8%;"|1!! style="width:5.8%;"|2!! style="width:5.8%;"|3!! style="width:5.8%;"|4!! style="width:5.8%;"|5!! style="width:5.8%;"|6!! style="width:5.8%;"|7!! style="width:5.8%;"|8!! style="width:5.8%;"|9!! style="width:5.8%;"|A!! style="width:5.8%;"|B!! style="width:5.8%;"|C!! style="width:5.8%;"|D!! style="width:5.8%;"|E!! style="width:5.8%;"|F
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|0370
+|[[Ͱ]]||[[ͱ]]||[[Ͳ]]||[[ͳ]]||{{Polytonic|ʹ}}<!-- Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|͵}}||[[Ͷ]]||[[ͷ]]||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|ͺ}}||ͻ||ͼ||ͽ||{{Polytonic|;}}<!-- Must use HTML-->||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|0380
+|style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|΄}}||{{Polytonic|΅}}||{{Polytonic|[[Ά]]}}||{{Polytonic|·}}<!-- Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|[[Έ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[Ή]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[Ί]]}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|[[Ό]]}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|[[Ύ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[Ώ]]}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|0390
+|{{Polytonic|[[ΐ]]}}||[[Α]]||[[Β]]||[[Γ]]||[[Δ]]||[[Ε]]||[[Ζ]]||[[Η]]||[[Θ]]||[[Ι]]||[[Κ]]||[[Λ]]||[[Μ]]||[[Ν]]||[[Ξ]]||[[Ο]]
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|03A0
+|[[Π]]||[[Ρ]]||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||[[Σ]]||[[Τ]]||[[Υ]]||[[Φ]]||[[Χ]]||[[Ψ]]||[[Ω]]||{{Polytonic|[[Ϊ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[Ϋ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ά]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[έ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ή]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ί]]}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|03B0
+|{{Polytonic|[[ΰ]]}}||[[α]]||[[β]]||[[γ]]||[[δ]]||[[ε]]||[[ζ]]||[[η]]||[[θ]]||[[ι]]||[[κ]]||[[λ]]||[[μ]]||[[ν]]||[[ξ]]||[[ο]]
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|03C0
+|[[π]]||[[ρ]]||{{Polytonic|[[ς]]}}||[[σ]]||[[τ]]||[[υ]]||[[φ]]||[[χ]]||[[ψ]]||[[ω]]||{{Polytonic|[[ϊ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ϋ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ό]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ύ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ώ]]}}||[[Ϗ]]
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|03D0
+|{{Polytonic|ϐ}}||{{Polytonic|ϑ}}||{{Polytonic|ϒ}}||{{Polytonic|[[ϓ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ϔ]]}}||{{Polytonic|ϕ}}||{{Polytonic|ϖ}}||{{Polytonic|[[ϗ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[Ϙ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ϙ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[Ϛ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ϛ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[Ϝ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ϝ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[Ϟ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ϟ]]}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|03E0
+|{{Polytonic|[[Ϡ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ϡ]]}}||colspan="14" style="background:#bbb;"|''([[Coptic alphabet|Coptic letters]] here)''
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|03F0
+|{{Polytonic|ϰ}}||{{Polytonic|ϱ}}||{{Polytonic|ϲ}}||{{Polytonic|[[ϳ]]}}||{{Polytonic|ϴ}}||{{Polytonic|ϵ}}||{{Polytonic|϶}}||{{Polytonic|[[Ϸ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ϸ]]}}||{{Polytonic|Ϲ}}||{{Polytonic|[[Ϻ]]}}||{{Polytonic|[[ϻ]]}}||{{Polytonic|ϼ}}||{{Polytonic|Ͻ}}||{{Polytonic|Ͼ}}||{{Polytonic|Ͽ}}
+|}
+==== Greek Extended (precomposed polytonic Greek) ====
+{|border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="border-collapse:collapse;"
+|- style="background:#ddd"
+! style="width:7.2%;"|&nbsp;!! style="width:5.8%;"|0!! style="width:5.8%;"|1!! style="width:5.8%;"|2!! style="width:5.8%;"|3!! style="width:5.8%;"|4!! style="width:5.8%;"|5!! style="width:5.8%;"|6!! style="width:5.8%;"|7!! style="width:5.8%;"|8!! style="width:5.8%;"|9!! style="width:5.8%;"|A!! style="width:5.8%;"|B!! style="width:5.8%;"|C!! style="width:5.8%;"|D!! style="width:5.8%;"|E!! style="width:5.8%;"|F
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1F00
+|{{Polytonic|ἀ}}||{{Polytonic|ἁ}}||{{Polytonic|ἂ}}||{{Polytonic|ἃ}}||{{Polytonic|ἄ}}||{{Polytonic|ἅ}}||{{Polytonic|ἆ}}||{{Polytonic|ἇ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἀ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἁ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἂ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἃ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἄ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἅ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἆ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἇ}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1F10
+|{{Polytonic|ἐ}}||{{Polytonic|ἑ}}||{{Polytonic|ἒ}}||{{Polytonic|ἓ}}||{{Polytonic|ἔ}}||{{Polytonic|ἕ}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|Ἐ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἑ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἒ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἓ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἔ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἕ}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1F20
+|{{Polytonic|ἠ}}||{{Polytonic|ἡ}}||{{Polytonic|ἢ}}||{{Polytonic|ἣ}}||{{Polytonic|ἤ}}||{{Polytonic|ἥ}}||{{Polytonic|ἦ}}||{{Polytonic|ἧ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἠ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἡ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἢ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἣ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἤ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἥ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἦ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἧ}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1F30
+|{{Polytonic|ἰ}}||{{Polytonic|ἱ}}||{{Polytonic|ἲ}}||{{Polytonic|ἳ}}||{{Polytonic|ἴ}}||{{Polytonic|ἵ}}||{{Polytonic|ἶ}}||{{Polytonic|ἷ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἰ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἱ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἲ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἳ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἴ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἵ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἶ}}||{{Polytonic|Ἷ}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1F40
+|{{Polytonic|ὀ}}||{{Polytonic|ὁ}}||{{Polytonic|ὂ}}||{{Polytonic|ὃ}}||{{Polytonic|ὄ}}||{{Polytonic|ὅ}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|Ὀ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὁ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὂ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὃ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὄ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὅ}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1F50
+|{{Polytonic|ὐ}}||{{Polytonic|ὑ}}||{{Polytonic|ὒ}}||{{Polytonic|ὓ}}||{{Polytonic|ὔ}}||{{Polytonic|ὕ}}||{{Polytonic|ὖ}}||{{Polytonic|ὗ}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|Ὑ}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|Ὓ}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|Ὕ}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|Ὗ}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1F60
+|{{Polytonic|ὠ}}||{{Polytonic|ὡ}}||{{Polytonic|ὢ}}||{{Polytonic|ὣ}}||{{Polytonic|ὤ}}||{{Polytonic|ὥ}}||{{Polytonic|ὦ}}||{{Polytonic|ὧ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὠ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὡ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὢ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὣ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὤ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὥ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὦ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὧ}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1F70
+|{{Polytonic|ὰ}}||{{Polytonic|ά}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|ὲ}}||{{Polytonic|έ}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|ὴ}}||{{Polytonic|ή}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|ὶ}}||{{Polytonic|ί}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|ὸ}}||{{Polytonic|ό}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|ὺ}}||{{Polytonic|ύ}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|ὼ}}||{{Polytonic|ώ}}<!--Must use HTML-->||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1F80
+|{{Polytonic|ᾀ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾁ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾂ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾃ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾄ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾅ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾆ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾇ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾈ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾉ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾊ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾋ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾌ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾍ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾎ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾏ}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1F90
+|{{Polytonic|ᾐ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾑ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾒ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾓ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾔ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾕ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾖ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾗ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾘ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾙ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾚ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾛ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾜ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾝ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾞ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾟ}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1FA0
+|{{Polytonic|ᾠ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾡ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾢ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾣ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾤ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾥ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾦ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾧ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾨ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾩ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾪ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾫ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾬ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾭ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾮ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾯ}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1FB0
+|{{Polytonic|ᾰ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾱ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾲ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾳ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾴ}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|ᾶ}}||{{Polytonic|ᾷ}}||{{Polytonic|Ᾰ}}||{{Polytonic|Ᾱ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὰ}}||{{Polytonic|Ά}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|ᾼ}}||{{Polytonic|᾽}}||{{Polytonic|ι}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|᾿}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1FC0
+|{{Polytonic|῀}}||{{Polytonic|῁}}||{{Polytonic|ῂ}}||{{Polytonic|ῃ}}||{{Polytonic|ῄ}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|ῆ}}||{{Polytonic|ῇ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὲ}}||{{Polytonic|Έ}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|Ὴ}}||{{Polytonic|Ή}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|ῌ}}||{{Polytonic|῍}}||{{Polytonic|῎}}||{{Polytonic|῏}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1FD0
+|{{Polytonic|ῐ}}||{{Polytonic|ῑ}}||{{Polytonic|ῒ}}||{{Polytonic|ΐ}}<!--Must use HTML-->||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|ῖ}}||{{Polytonic|ῗ}}||{{Polytonic|Ῐ}}||{{Polytonic|Ῑ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὶ}}||{{Polytonic|Ί}}<!--Must use HTML-->||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|῝}}||{{Polytonic|῞}}||{{Polytonic|῟}}
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1FE0
+|{{Polytonic|ῠ}}||{{Polytonic|ῡ}}||{{Polytonic|ῢ}}||{{Polytonic|ΰ}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|ῤ}}||{{Polytonic|ῥ}}||{{Polytonic|ῦ}}||{{Polytonic|ῧ}}||{{Polytonic|Ῠ}}||{{Polytonic|Ῡ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὺ}}||{{Polytonic|Ύ}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|Ῥ}}||{{Polytonic|῭}}||{{Polytonic|΅}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|`}}<!--Must use HTML-->
+|- style="text-align:center;"
+!style="background:#ddd"|1FF0
+|style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|ῲ}}||{{Polytonic|ῳ}}||{{Polytonic|ῴ}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;||{{Polytonic|ῶ}}||{{Polytonic|ῷ}}||{{Polytonic|Ὸ}}||{{Polytonic|Ό}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|Ὼ}}||{{Polytonic|Ώ}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|ῼ}}||{{Polytonic|´}}<!--Must use HTML-->||{{Polytonic|῾}}||style="background:#bbb"|&nbsp;
+|}
+==== Combining and letter-free diacritics ====
+[[Combining diacritical mark|Combining]] and spacing (letter-free) [[diacritical mark]]s pertaining to [[Greek language]]:
+{|class="wikitable"
+|-
+!combining!!spacing!!sample!!description
+|-
+|U+0300||U+0060||( {{polytonic|&nbsp;̀}})||"varia / [[grave accent]]"
+|-
+|U+0301||U+00B4, U+0384||( {{polytonic|&nbsp;́}})||"oxia / tonos / [[acute accent]]"
+|-
+|U+0304||U+00AF||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̄}})||"[[macron]]"
+|-
+|U+0306||U+02D8||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̆}})||"vrachy / [[breve]]"
+|-
+|U+0308||U+00A8||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̈}})||"dialytika / [[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]]"
+|-
+|U+0313||U+02BC||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̓}})||"psili / comma above" ([[spiritus lenis]])
+|-
+|U+0314||U+02BD||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̔}})||"dasia / reversed comma above" ([[spiritus asper]])
+|-
+|U+0342||||( {{unicode|&nbsp;͂}})||"perispomeni" ([[circumflex]])
+|-
+|U+0343||||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̓}})||"[[Coronis (diacritic)|koronis]]" (= U+0313)
+|-
+|U+0344||U+0385||( {{unicode|&nbsp;̈́}})||"dialytika tonos" (deprecated, = U+0308 U+0301)
+|-
+|U+0345||U+037A||( {{unicode|&nbsp;ͅ}})||"ypogegrammeni / [[iota subscript]]".
+|}
+=== Encodings with a subset of the Greek alphabet ===
+[[IBM]] code pages [[Code page 437|437]], [[Code page 860|860]], [[Code page 861|861]], [[Code page 862|862]], [[Code page 863|863]], and [[Code page 865|865]] contain the letters ΓΘΣΦΩαδεπστφ (plus β as an alternate interpretation for [[ß]]).
+== See also ==
+*[[Ancient Greek phonology]]
+*[[Arvanitic alphabet]]
+*[[Attic numerals]], a system of acrophonic representing numbers using letters of the Greek alphabet
+*[[Euboean alphabet]] Cumae alphabet
+*[[English pronunciation of Greek letters]]
+*[[Greek Font Society]]
+*[[Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering]]
+*[[Greek numerals]], a system of sequential representing numbers using letters of the Greek alphabet
+*[[Greek spelling alphabet]] Hellenic phonetic alphabet
+*[[Greeklish]]
+*[[List of Greek words with English derivatives]]
+*[[List of XML and HTML character entity references]]
+*[[Phoenician alphabet]]
+*[[Romanization of Greek]] Greek transliteration
+*[[:Category:Hellenic scripts]]
+== Bibliography ==
+=== Notes ===
+== External links ==
+*[http://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0370.pdf Unicode 5.1] Greek range
+*[http://ellinikasimera.dartmouth.edu/resources/texts/shapes1.html Examples of Greek handwriting]
+*[http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/unicode.html Greek Unicode Issues]
+*[http://www.unicode.org/faq/greek.html Unicode FAQ - Greek Language and Script]
+*[http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/greek.html Unicode 5.1 alphabetic test for Greek Unicode range]
+*[http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/ancient-greek-numbers.html Unicode 5.1 numeric test for Greek Unicode range]
+*[http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis//unicode/unicode_stories.html Unicode 5.1 test for all Greek-related Unicode ranges]
+=== Typography ===
+*Collection of free fonts: [http://www.greekfontsociety.gr/pages/en_typefaces1.html greekfontsociety.gr]
+{{DEFAULTSORT:Greek Alphabet}}
+[[Category:Articles including recorded pronunciations]]
+[[Category:Greek alphabet]]
+[[Category:Greek letters]]
+{{Donate}}