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| - | '''Russia''' (ˈ|r|ʌ|ʃ|ə; Россия Rossiya rɐˈsʲijə), officially known as both '''Russia''' and the '''Russian Federation'''<sup>[8]</sup> (Российская Федерация Rossiyskaya Federatsiya rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsəjə), is a [[sovereign state|state]] in northern [[Eurasia]]. It is a [[federation|federal]] [[semi-presidential]] [[republic]], comprising 83 [[federal subjects]]. From northwest to southeast, Russia [[borders of Russia|shares borders]] with [[Norway]], [[Finland]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]] and [[Poland]] (both via [[Kaliningrad Oblast]]), [[Belarus]], [[Ukraine]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Kazakhstan]], the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Mongolia]], and [[North Korea]]. It also has [[maritime border]]s with [[Japan]] by the [[Sea of Okhotsk]], and the [[United States]] by the [[Bering Strait]]. At {{convert|17,075,400|km2|mi2}}, Russia is the [[largest country in the world]], covering more than a ninth of the [[Earth]]'s land area. Russia is also the ninth [[most populous nation]] with 142 million people.<sup>[2]</sup> It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning [[time zones by country|9 time zones]] and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources.<sup>[9]</sup> It has the world's largest [[forest reserves]] and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's [[freshwater]].<sup>[10]</sup>
| + | See [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia Wikipedia Article on Russia] |
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| - | The nation's history began with that of the [[East Slavs]], who emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD.<sup>[11]</sup> Founded and ruled by a [[Varangian]] warrior elite and their descendants, the first East Slavic state, [[Kievan Rus']], arose in the 9th century and adopted [[Orthodox Christianity]] from the [[Byzantine Empire]] in [[988 AD|988]],<sup>[12]</sup> beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined [[Russian culture]] for the [[Millennium of Russia|next millennium]].<sup>[12]</sup> Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated into a number of smaller states; most of the Rus' lands ultimately were overrun by the [[Mongol invasion of Rus'|Mongol invasion]] and became tributaries of the nomadic [[Golden Horde]].<sup>[13]</sup> The [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] gradually reunified the surrounding Russian principalities, achieved independence from the Golden Horde, and came to dominate the cultural and political legacy of Kievan Rus'. By the 18th century, the nation had greatly expanded through conquest, annexation, [[Russian explorers|and exploration]] to become the [[Russian Empire]], which was the third [[largest empire]] in history, stretching from Poland in Europe to [[Russian Alaska|Alaska]] in North America.<sup>[14]</sup><sup>[15]</sup>
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| - | Russia established worldwide power and influence from the times of the Russian Empire to being the largest and leading constituent of the [[Soviet Union]], the world's first constitutionally [[socialist state]] and a recognized [[superpower]],<sup>[16]</sup> that played a decisive role in the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] victory in [[World War II]].<sup>[17]</sup><sup>[18]</sup> The Soviet era saw some of the [[Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records|greatest technology achievements]] of the 20th century, such as the world's [[first human spaceflight]]. The Russian Federation was founded following the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in [[1991 AD|1991]], but is recognized as the continuing legal personality of the Soviet state.<sup>[19]</sup> Russia has the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|10th largest economy]] by [[nominal GDP]] or the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|6th largest]] by [[purchasing power parity]], with the [[List of countries by military expenditure|5th largest]] nominal military budget. It is one of the five [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty|recognized]] [[nuclear weapons states]] and possesses the [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction]].<sup>[20]</sup> Russia is a [[great power]] and a permanent member of the [[United Nations Security Council]], a member of the [[G8]], [[G20]], the [[Council of Europe]], the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]], the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organization]], the [[Eurasian Economic Community]], the [[Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe]] (OSCE), and is the leading member of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]].
| + | * [[Portal:Russia|Russian Portal]] |
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| - | ==History==
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| - | ''See Also [[History of Russia]]''
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| - | ===Etymology===
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| - | ''See Also [[Rus (name)]]''
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| - | The country's original name was Русь (Rus'), a medieval state populated mostly by the [[East Slavs]]. However, this proper name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants "Русская Земля" (russkaya zemlya) which could be translated as "Russian Land" or "Land of [[Rus']]". In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as [[Kievan Rus']] by modern historiography.
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| - | An old Latin version of the name Rus' was [[Ruthenia]], mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus' that were adjacent to [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] Europe. The current name of the country, Россия (Rossiya), comes from the [[Greek]] version of Rus', spelled Ρωσία [rosˈia], which was the denomination of Kievan Rus in the [[Byzantine Empire]].
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| - | ===Early periods===
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| - | ''See Also [[Eurasian nomads]] [[Scythia]] [[Bosporan Kingdom]] [[Khazaria]] [[East Slavs]]''
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| - | [[Image:IE expansion.png|thumb|left|[[Kurgan hypothesis]]: South Russia as the [[urheimat]] of [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European peoples]].]]
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| - | One of the first [[Cro-magnon|modern human]] bones of the age of 35 000 years was found in Russia, in [[Kostenki]] on the [[Don River (Russia)|Don River]] banks. In prehistoric times the vast steppes of Southern Russia were home to tribes of [[nomadic pastoralists]].<sup>[]</sup> Remnants of these steppe civilizations were discovered in such places as [[Ipatovo kurgan|Ipatovo]],<sup>[]</sup> [[Sintashta]],<sup>[]</sup> [[Arkaim]],<sup>[]</sup> and [[Pazyryk burials|Pazyryk]],<sup>[]</sup> which bear the earliest known traces of [[Horses in warfare|mounted warfare]], a key feature in nomadic way of life.
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| - | In [[classical antiquity]], the [[Pontic Steppe]] was known as [[Scythia]]. Since the 8th century BC, [[Ancient Greek]] traders brought their civilization to the trade emporiums in [[Tanais]] and [[Phanagoria]].<sup>[]</sup> Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD, the [[Bosporan Kingdom]], a Hellenistic polity which succeeded the Greek colonies,<sup>[]</sup> was overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes, such as the [[Huns]] and [[Eurasian Avars]].<sup>[]</sup> A [[Turkic people]], the [[Khazars]], ruled the lower [[Volga]] basin steppes between the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Black Sea]]s until the 8th century.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | The ancestors of modern [[Russians]] are the [[Slavic tribes]], whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the [[Pinsk Marshes]].<sup>[]</sup> The [[East Slavs]] gradually settled Western Russia in two waves: one moving from [[Kiev]] toward present-day [[Suzdal]] and [[Murom]] and another from [[Polotsk]] toward [[Novgorod]] and [[Rostov]]. From the 7th century onwards, the East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia<sup>[]</sup> and slowly but peacefully assimilated the native [[Finno-Ugric peoples]], including the [[Merya]], the [[Muromian]]s, and the [[Meshchera]].
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| - | ===Kievan Rus'===
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| - | ''See Also [[Kievan Rus'|Early East Slavic states]]''
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| - | [[Image:Kievan Rus en.jpg|thumb|[[Kievan Rus']] in the 11th century]]
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| - | The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of ''[[Varangians]]'', the [[Vikings]] who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic [[From the Varangians to the Greeks|to the Black]] [[Volga trade route|and Caspian]] Seas.<sup>[]</sup> According to the [[Primary Chronicle]], a Varangian from [[Rus' people]], named [[Rurik]], was elected ruler of [[Novgorod]] in 862. His successor [[Oleg the Prophet]] moved south and conquered [[Kiev]] in 882,<sup>[]</sup> which had been previously paying tribute to the [[Khazars]]; so the state of [[Kievan Rus']] started. Oleg, Rurik's son [[Igor of Kiev|Igor]] and Igor's son [[Svyatoslav I of Kiev|Svyatoslav]] subsequently subdued all East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the [[Khazar khaganate]] and launched several military expeditions to [[Byzantium]].
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| - | In the 10th to 11th centuries Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe.<sup>[]</sup> The reigns of [[Vladimir the Great]] (980–1015) and his son [[Yaroslav I the Wise]] (1019–1054) constitute the [[Golden Age]] of Kiev, which saw [[Christianization of Kievan Rus'|the acceptance of]] [[Orthodox Christianity]] from Byzantium and the creation of the first East Slavic written [[legal code]], the ''[[Russkaya Pravda]]''.
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| - | In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as the [[Kipchaks]] and the [[Pechenegs]], caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, particularly to the area known as [[Zalesye]].<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | [[File:Lebedev baptism.jpg|left|thumb|''The [[Baptism of Kievans]]'', by [[Klavdy Lebedev]].]]
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| - | The age of [[feudalism]] and decentralization had come, marked by constant in-fighting between members of the [[Rurikid Dynasty]] that ruled Kievan Rus' collectively. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of [[Vladimir-Suzdal]] in the north-east, [[Novgorod Republic]] in the north-west and [[Galicia-Volhynia]] in the south-west.
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| - | Ultimately Kievan Rus' disintegrated, with the final blow being the [[Mongol invasion of Rus'|Mongol invasion]] of 1237–40,<sup>[]</sup> that resulted in the destruction of Kiev<sup>[]</sup> and the death of about half the population of Rus'.<sup>[]</sup> The invaders, later known as [[Tatars]], formed the state of the [[Golden Horde]], which pillaged the Russian principalities and ruled the southern and central expanses of Russia for over three centuries.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | Galicia-Volhynia was eventually assimilated by the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], while the Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod Republic, two regions on the periphery of Kiev, established the basis for the modern Russian nation.<sup>[]</sup> The Novgorod together with [[Pskov]] retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the [[Mongol yoke]] and were largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country. Led by Prince [[Alexander Nevsky]], Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the [[Battle of the Neva]] in 1240, as well as the [[Northern Crusades|Germanic crusaders]] in the [[Battle of the Ice]] in 1242, breaking their attempts to colonize the Northern Rus'.
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| - | ===Grand Duchy of Moscow===
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| - | ''See Also [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]]''
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| - | [[File:Lissner TroiceSergievaLavr.jpg|thumb|250|[[Sergius of Radonezh]] blessing [[Dmitri Donskoi]] in [[Trinity Sergius Lavra]], before the [[Battle of Kulikovo]].]]
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| - | The most powerful successor state to Kievan Rus' was the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] ("Moscovy" in the Western chronicles), initially a part of [[Vladimir-Suzdal]]. While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in Western Russia in the early 14th century.
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| - | Those were hard times, with frequent [[Mongol-Tatar raids]] and agriculture suffering from the beginning of the [[Little Ice Age]]. Like in the rest of Europe, plagues hit Russia somewhere once every five or six years from 1350 to 1490. However, due to the lower population density and better hygiene (widespread practicing of [[banya (sauna)|banya]], the wet steam bath),<sup>[]</sup> the population loss caused by plagues was not so severe as in the Western Europe, and the pre-Plague populations were reached in Russia as early as 1500.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | Led by Prince [[Dmitri Donskoy]] of Moscow and helped by the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the [[Battle of Kulikovo]] in 1380. Moscow gradually absorbed the surrounding principalities, including the formerly strong rivals, such as [[Tver]] and [[Novgorod]]. This way Moscow became the main leading force in the process of Russia's reunification and expansion.
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| - | [[Ivan III]] (''the Great'') finally threw off the control of the Golden Horde, consolidated the whole of Central and Northern Rus' under Moscow's dominion, and was the first to take the title "Grand Duke of all the Russias".<sup>[]</sup> After the [[fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, Moscow [[Third Rome|claimed succession to the legacy]] of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]]. Ivan III married [[Sophia Palaiologina]], the niece of the last [[Byzantine emperor]] [[Constantine XI]], and made the Byzantine [[double-headed eagle]] his own, and eventually Russian, coat-of-arms.
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| - | ===Tsardom of Russia===
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| - | ''See Also [[Tsardom of Russia]]''
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| - | [[Image:Ivan the Terrible (cropped).JPG|thumb|upright|left|Tsar [[Ivan IV]] by [[Ilya Repin]]]]
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| - | In development of the [[Third Rome]] ideas, the Grand Duke [[Ivan IV]] (the "Awesome"<sup>[]</sup> or "the Terrible") was officially crowned the first [[Tsar]] ("[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]") of Russia in 1547. The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws ([[Sudebnik of 1550]]), established the first Russian feudal representative body ([[Zemsky Sobor]]) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions.<sup>[]</sup><sup>[]</sup>
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| - | During his long reign, Ivan IV nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates (parts of disintegrated [[Golden Horde]]): [[Khanate of Kazan|Kazan]] and [[Astrakhan Khanate|Astrakhan]] along the Volga River, and [[Sibirean Khanate]] in South Western Siberia. Thus by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a [[multiethnic]], multiconfessional and [[transcontinental state]].
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| - | However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful [[Livonian War]] against the coalition of Poland, Lithuania, and Sweden for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.<sup>[]</sup> At the same time the Tatars of the [[Crimean Khanate]], the only remaining successor to the [[Golden Horde]], continued to raid Southern Russia,<sup>[]</sup> and were even able to [[Russo-Crimean Wars|burn down Moscow]] in 1571.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | [[File:Minin&Pogjarsky 2.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Monument to Minin and Pozharsky]] in Moscow]]
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| - | The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient [[Rurikid Dynasty]] in 1598, and in combination with the [[famine of 1601–03]]<sup>[]</sup> led to the civil war, the rule of pretenders and foreign intervention during the [[Time of Troubles]] in the early 17th century.<sup>[]</sup> [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] occupied parts of Russia, including Moscow. In 1612 the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by two national heroes, merchant [[Kuzma Minin]] and Prince [[Dmitry Pozharsky]]. The [[Romanov Dynasty]] acceded the throne in 1613 by the decision of [[Zemsky Sobor]], and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.
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| - | Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of [[Cossacks]]. Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling [[pirates]] and [[pioneers of the New World]]. In 1648, the peasants of [[Ukraine]] joined the [[Zaporozhian Cossacks]] in rebellion against Poland-Lithuania during the [[Khmelnytsky Uprising]], because of the social and religious oppression they suffered under Polish rule. In 1654 the Ukrainian leader, [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]], offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian Tsar, [[Aleksey I]]. Aleksey's acceptance of this offer led to another [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)]]. Finally, Ukraine was split along the river [[Dnieper]], leaving the western part (or [[Right-bank Ukraine]]) under Polish rule and eastern part ([[Left-bank Ukraine]] and [[Kiev]]) under Russian. Later, in 1670–71 the [[Don Cossacks]] led by [[Stenka Razin]] initiated a major uprising in the Volga region, but the Tsar's troops were successful in defeating the rebels.
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| - | In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of the huge territories of Siberia was led mostly by Cossacks hunting for valuable [[fur]]s and [[ivory]]. [[Russian explorers]] pushed eastward primarily along the [[Siberian river routes]], and by the mid-17th century there were Russian settlements in the Eastern Siberia, on the [[Chukchi Peninsula]], along the [[Amur River]], and on the Pacific coast. In 1648 the [[Bering Strait]] between Asia and North America was passed for the first time by [[Fedot Popov]] and [[Semyon Dezhnyov]].
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| - | ===Imperial Russia===
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| - | See Also [[Russian Empire]]
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| - | [[Image:Peter der-Grosse 1838.jpg|left|180px|thumb|[[Peter the Great]], the first [[Emperor of Russia]]]]
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| - | Under [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]] (''the Great''), Russia was proclaimed an Empire in 1721 and became recognized as a world power. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the [[Great Northern War]], forcing it to cede West [[Karelia]] and [[Ingria]] (two regions lost by Russia in the [[Time of Troubles]]),<sup>[]</sup> as well as [[Governorate of Estonia|Estland]] and [[Livland]], securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade.<sup>[]</sup> On the [[Baltic Sea]] Peter founded a new capital called [[Saint Petersburg]], later known as Russia's ''Window to Europe''. [[Peter the Great's reforms]] brought considerable Western European cultural influences to Russia.
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| - | The reign of Peter I's daughter [[Elisabeth of Russia|Elisabeth]] in 1741–62 saw Russia's participation in the [[Seven Years War]] (1756–63). During this conflict Russia annexed [[Eastern Prussia]] for a while and even took Berlin. However, upon Elisabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to [[Kingdom of Prussia]] by pro-Prussian [[Peter III of Russia]].
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| - | [[Catherine II]] (''the Great''), who ruled in 1762–96, presided over the Age of [[Russian Enlightenment]]. She extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and incorporated most of its territories into Russia during the [[Partitions of Poland]], pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe. In the south, after successful [[Russo-Turkish Wars]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]], Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, defeating the [[Crimean khanate]]. As a result of victories over the Ottomans, by the early 19th century Russia also made significant territorial gains in [[Transcaucasia]]. This continued with [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I's]] (1801–25) wresting of [[Finland]] from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and of [[Bessarabia]] from the Ottomans in 1812. At the same time Russians [[Russian America|colonized Alaska]] and even founded settlements in California, like [[Fort Ross]].
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| - | In 1803–06 the [[first Russian circumnavigation]] was made, later followed by other notable Russian sea exploration voyages. In 1820 [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen|a Russian expedition]] discovered the continent of [[Antarctica]].
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| - | [[Image:Imperio Ruso.PNG|thumb|300px|The [[Russian Empire]] in 1866 and its spheres of influence]]
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| - | In alliances with various European countries, Russia fought against [[Napoleon]]'s France. The [[French invasion of Russia]] at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 failed miserably as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold [[Russian winter]] led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which more than 95% of the pan-European [[Grande Armée]] perished.<sup>[]</sup> Led by [[Mikhail Kutuzov]] and [[Barclay de Tolly]], the Russian army ousted Napoleon from the country and drove through Europe in the [[war of the Sixth Coalition]], finally entering [[Paris]]. Alexander I headed Russia's delegation at the [[Congress of Vienna]] that defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.
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| - | The officers of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia with them and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive [[Decembrist revolt]] of 1825. At the end of the conservative reign of [[Nicolas I]] (1825–55) a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe was disrupted by defeat in the [[Crimean War]]. Between 1847 and 1851 a massive wave of Asiatic [[cholera]] swept over Russia, claiming about one million lives.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | Nicholas's successor [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] (1855–81) enacted significant changes in the country, including the [[emancipation reform of 1861]]. These ''Great Reforms'' spurred [[industrialization]] and modernized the Russian army, which had successfully liberated [[Bulgaria]] from Ottoman rule in [[1877–78 Russo-Turkish War]].
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| - | [[File:Kustodiev The Bolshevik.jpg|left|thumb|''[[Bolshevik]]'' by [[Boris Kustodiev]], a visual representation of the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution]]]]
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| - | The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was killed in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists, and the reign of his son
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| - | [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]] (1881–94) was less liberal but more peaceful. The last Russian Emperor, [[Nicholas II]] (1894–1917), was unable, however, to prevent the events of the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], triggered by the unsuccessful [[Russo-Japanese War]] and the demonstration incident known as [[Bloody Sunday (1905)|Bloody Sunday]]. The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms, including granting the [[freedoms of speech]] and [[freedom of assembly|assembly]], the legalization of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the [[State Duma of the Russian Empire]].
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| - | In 1914 Russia entered World War I in response to Austria's declaration of war on Russia's ally [[Serbia]], and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its [[Triple Entente]] allies. In 1916 the [[Brusilov Offensive]] of the Russian Army almost completely destroyed the military of [[Austria-Hungary]]. However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, [[World War I casualties|high casualties]], and rumors of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], carried out in two major acts.
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| - | The [[February Revolution]] forced Nicholas II to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and [[Ipatiev House|later executed]] during the [[Russian Civil War]]. The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the [[Russian Provisional Government|Provisional Government]]. An alternative socialist establishment existed alongside, the [[Petrograd Soviet]], wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called ''[[Soviet (council)|Soviets]]''. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country, instead of resolving it. Eventually, the [[October Revolution]], led by [[Bolshevik]] leader [[Vladimir Lenin]], overthrew the Provisional Government and created the world’s first [[socialist state]].
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| - | ===Soviet Russia===
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| - | ''See Also [[Soviet Union]] [[History of the Soviet Union]] [[Russian SFSR]]''
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| - | [[Image:Russia-2000-stamp-Tatlin Tower and Worker and Kolkhoz Woman by Vera Mukhina.jpg|280px|right|thumb|The symbols of the Soviet era: [[Tatlin's Tower]] project and the giant ''[[Worker and Kolkhoz Woman]]'' sculpture group.]]
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| - | Following the October Revolution, a civil war broke out between the [[anti-communist]] [[White movement]] and the new regime with its [[Red Army]]. Russia lost its Ukrainian, Polish, Baltic, and Finnish territories by signing the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] that concluded hostilities with the [[Central Powers]] in World War I. The [[Allies of World War I|Allied powers]] launched an unsuccessful [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|military intervention]] in support of anti-Communist forces, while both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the [[Red Terror]] and [[White Terror]]. By the end of the civil war the Russian economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged. Millions became [[White émigré]]s,<sup>[]</sup> and the [[Povolzhye famine]] claimed up to 5 million victims.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | The [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] (called ''Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic'' at the time) together with three other Soviet republics [[Treaty on the Creation of the USSR|formed the Soviet Union]], or USSR, on 30 December 1922. Out of the 15 [[republics of the USSR]], the Russian SFSR was the largest in terms of size, and making up over half of the total USSR population, dominated the union for its entire 69-year history.
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| - | Following Lenin's death in 1924, [[Joseph Stalin]], an elected [[General Secretary of the Communist Party]], managed to put down all opposition groups within the party and consolidate much power in his hands. [[Leon Trotsky]], the main proponent of the [[world revolution]], was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929, and Stalin's idea of [[socialism in one country]] became the primary line. The continued internal struggle in the [[Bolshevik party]] culminated in the [[Great Purge]], a period of mass repressions in 1937–38, in which hundreds of thousands of people were executed, including military leaders convicted in [[coup d'état]] plots.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | The government launched a [[planned economy]], [[industrialisation]] of the largely rural country, and [[Collectivization in the USSR|collectivization]] of its agriculture. During this period of rapid economical and social changes, millions of people were sent to [[Gulag|penal labor camps]],<sup>[]</sup> including many political convicts, and millions were [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|deported and exiled]] to remote areas of the Soviet Union.<ref name="Getty"/> The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought, led to the [[famine of 1932–1933]].<sup>[]</sup> However, though with a heavy price, the Soviet Union was transformed from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in a short span of time.
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| - | The [[Appeasement policy]] of Great Britain and France towards [[Adolf Hitler]]'s annexations of [[Ruhr]], Austria and finally of [[Czechoslovakia]] enlarged the might of [[Nazi Germany]] and put a threat of war to the Soviet Union. Around the same time the [[German Reich]] allied with the [[Empire of Japan]], a rival of the USSR in the [[Far East]] and an open enemy in the [[Soviet–Japanese Border Wars]] in 1938–39.
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| - | [[Image:VE-day-parade-moscow.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Moscow Victory Parade of 1945]] was the first major Soviet event recorded on color film.]]
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| - | In August 1939, after another failure of attempts to establish a counter-Nazism alliance with Britain and France, the Soviet government agreed to conclude the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] with Germany, pledging non-aggression between the two countries and dividing their spheres of influence in [[Eastern Europe]]. While Hitler conquered Poland, France and other countries acting on single front at the start of the [[World War II]], the USSR was able to build up its military and regain some of the former territories of the [[Russian Empire]] during the [[Soviet invasion of Poland]] and the [[Winter War]].
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| - | On 22 June 1941, Nazi Germany broke the non-aggression treaty and invaded the Soviet Union with the largest and most powerful invasion force in human history,<sup>[]</sup> opening the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|largest theater of the Second World War]]. Although the [[Wehrmacht|German army]] had considerable success early on, their onslaught was halted in the [[Battle of Moscow]]. Subsequently the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in the winter of 1942–43,<sup>[]</sup> and then in the [[Battle of Kursk]] in the summer of 1943. Another German failure was the [[Siege of Leningrad]], in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941–44 by German and Finnish forces, suffering starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendering.<sup>[]</sup> Under Stalin's administration and the leadership of such commanders as [[Georgy Zhukov]] and [[Konstantin Rokossovsky]], Soviet forces drove through [[Eastern Europe]] in 1944–45 and [[Battle of Berlin|captured Berlin]] in May 1945. In August 1945 the Soviet Army [[Soviet-Japanese War (1945)|ousted Japanese]] from China's [[Manchukuo]] and [[North Korea]], contributing to the allied victory over Japan.
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| - | [[File:Yuri Gagarin 140-190 for collage (new).jpg|thumb|upright|First human in space, [[Yuri Gagarin]]]]
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| - | The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the ''[[Great Patriotic War (term)|Great Patriotic War]]''. In this conflict, which included many of the [[most lethal battle operations]] in human history, Soviet military and civilian deaths were 10.6 million and 15.9 million respectively,<sup>[]</sup> accounting for about a third of all [[World War II casualties]]. The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation<sup>[]</sup> but the Soviet Union emerged as an acknowledged [[superpower]].
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| - | The [[Red Army]] occupied [[Eastern Europe]] after the war, including [[East Germany]]. Dependent socialist governments were installed in the [[Eastern bloc]] satellite states. Becoming the world's second [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear weapons power]], the USSR established the [[Warsaw Pact]] alliance and entered into a struggle for global dominance with the United States and [[NATO]], which became known as the [[Cold War]]. The Soviet Union exported its [[Communist ideology]] to newly formed [[People's Republic of China]] and [[North Korea]], and later into [[Cuba]] and many other countries. Significant amounts of the Soviet resources were [[International relations within the Comecon|allocated in aid]] to the other socialist states.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | After Stalin's death and a short period of collective rule, new leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] denounced the [[cult of personality]] of Stalin and launched the policy of [[de-Stalinization]]. Penal labor system was reformed and many prisoners were released and rehabilitated.<sup>[]</sup> The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the [[Khruschev thaw]]. At the same time, tensions with the United States heightened when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the U.S. [[PGM-19 Jupiter|Jupiter missiles]] in [[Turkey]] and Soviet [[Cuban Missile Crisis|missiles in Cuba]].
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| - | [[File:Mir on 12 June 1998edit1.jpg|left|thumb|Soviet and Russian [[space station]] [[Mir]]]]
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| - | In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial [[satellite]], ''[[Sputnik 1]]'', thus starting the [[Space Age]]. Russian [[cosmonaut]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first human to orbit the [[Earth]] aboard ''[[Vostok 1]]'' manned spacecraft on [[Cosmonautics Day|12 April 1961]].
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| - | Following the ousting of voluntarist and erratic Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective rule ensued, until [[Leonid Brezhnev]] became the leader. The era of 1970s and the early 1980s was designated later as [[Brezhnev stagnation]], a period when the economic growth slowed and social policies became static. The [[Kosygin reform]], aimed into partial [[decentralization]] of the [[Soviet economy]] and shifting the emphasis from [[heavy industry]] and weapons to [[light industry]] and [[consumer goods]], was stifled by the conservative Communist leadership.
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| - | In 1979 the Soviet forces entered [[Afghanistan]] at the request of its communist government. The occupation drained economic resources and dragged on without achieving meaningful political results. Ultimately the [[Soviet Army]] was withdrawn from Afghanistan in 1989 because of international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerilla warfare (enhanced by the U.S.), and a lack of support from Soviet citizens.
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| - | From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] introduced the policies of ''[[glasnost]]'' (openness) and ''[[perestroika]]'' (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize the country and make it more [[democratic]]. However, this led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements. Prior to 1991, the [[Soviet economy]] was the second largest in the world,<sup>[]</sup> but during its last years it was afflicted by shortages of goods in grocery stores, huge budget deficits, and explosive growth in money supply leading to inflation.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | In August 1991, [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|an unsuccessful military coup]], directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to its collapse and the end of socialist rule. The USSR [[dissolution of the Soviet Union|was dissolved]] into 15 [[post-Soviet states]] in December 1991.
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| - | ===Russian Federation===
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| - | ''See Also [[History of post-Soviet Russia]]''
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| - | [[Image:Moscow-City 28-03-2010 2.jpg|thumb|280px|[[Moscow International Business Center]] under construction]]
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| - | [[Boris Yeltsin]] was elected the [[President of Russia]] in June 1991, in the first direct presidential election in Russian history. During and after the Soviet disintegration, wide-ranging reforms including [[privatisation]] and
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| - | [[market liberalization|market]] and [[trade liberalization]] were being undertaken,<sup>[]</sup> including the radical changes along the lines of "[[shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]]" as recommended by the United States and [[International Monetary Fund]].<sup>[]</sup> All this resulted in a major economy crisis, characterized by 50% decline of both [[GDP]] and industrial output between 1990-95.<sup>[]</sup><sup>[]</sup>
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| - | The privatization largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government system. Many of the newly rich businesspeople took billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous [[capital flight]].<sup>[]</sup> The depression of state and economy led to the collapse of social services; the [[birth rate]] plummeted while the [[death rate]] skyrocketed. Millions plunged into poverty, from 1.5% level of poverty in the late Soviet era, to 39–49% by mid-1993.<sup>[]</sup> The 1990s saw extreme corruption and lawlessness, rise of criminal gangs and violent crime.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the [[Northern Caucasus]], both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist [[Islamist]] insurrections. Since the [[Chechnya|Chechen]] separatists had declared independence in the early 1990s, an [[First Chechen War|intermittent guerrilla war]] was fought between the rebel groups and the Russian military. Terrorist attacks against civilians carried out by separatists, most notably the [[Moscow theater hostage crisis]] and [[Beslan school siege]], caused hundreds of deaths and drew worldwide attention.
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| - | Russia took up the responsibility for settling the USSR's external debts, even though its population made up just half of the population of the USSR at the time of its dissolution.<sup>[]</sup> High budget deficits caused the [[1998 Russian financial crisis]]<sup>[]</sup> and resulted in further GDP decline.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | On 31 December 1999 President Yeltsin resigned, handing the post to the recently appointed Prime Minister, [[Vladimir Putin]], who then won [[Russian presidential election, 2000|the 2000 presidential election]]. Putin [[Second Chechen War|suppressed the Chechen insurgency]], although sporadic violence still occurs throughout the Northern Caucasus. High oil prices and initially weak currency followed by increasing domestic demand, consumption and investments has helped the economy grow for nine straight years, improving the standard of living and increasing Russia's influence on the world stage.<sup>[]</sup> While many reforms made during the Putin presidency have been generally criticized by Western nations as un-democratic,<sup>[]</sup> Putin's leadership over the return of order, stability, and progress has won him widespread popularity in Russia.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | On 2 March 2008, [[Dmitry Medvedev]] was elected [[President of Russia]], whilst Putin became [[Prime Minister of Russia|Prime Minister]].
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| - | ==Politics==
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| - | {{Main|Politics of Russia|Government of Russia}} | + | |
| - | [[File:Kremlin Senate in the Moscow Kremlin.jpg|thumb|left|Entrance to the [[Kremlin Senate]], part of the [[Moscow Kremlin]] and the working residence of the [[Russian president]]]]
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| - | According to the [[Constitution of Russia]], the country is a [[federation]] and [[semi-presidential]] [[republic]], wherein the President is the [[head of state]]<sup>[]</sup> and the [[Prime Minister of Russia|Prime Minister]] is the [[head of government]]. The Russian Federation is fundamentally structured as a [[Multi-party system|multi-party]] [[representative democracy]], with the federal government composed of three branches:
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| - | * [[Legislative]]: The [[bicameral]] [[Federal Assembly of Russia|Federal Assembly]], made up of the 450-member [[State Duma]] and the 176-member [[Federation Council]], adopts [[federal law]], [[declaration of war|declares war]], approves treaties, has the [[power of the purse]] and the power of [[impeachment]] of the President.
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| - | * [[Executive (government)|Executive]]: The President is the [[commander-in-chief]] of the military, can veto [[legislative bill]]s before they become law, and appoints the Cabinet and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.
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| - | * [[Judiciary]]: The [[Constitutional Court of Russia|Constitutional Court]], [[Supreme Court of Russia|Supreme Court]], [[Supreme Court of Arbitration]] and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the President, interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem [[unconstitutional]].
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| - | The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term (eligible for a second term, but not for a third consecutive term).<sup>[]</sup> Ministries of the government are composed of the Premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Prime Minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). Leading political parties in Russia include [[United Russia]], the [[CPRF|Communist Party]], the [[Liberal Democratic Party of Russia]], and [[Fair Russia]].
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| - | Western observers have raised questions as to how much of Russia's political system corresponds to Western liberal democratic ideals. Academics have often complained about the difficulty of classifying Russia's political system. According Steve White, during the Putin presidency Russia made clear that it had no intention of establishing a "second edition" of the American or British political system, but rather a system that was closer to Russia's own traditions and circumstances.<sup>[]</sup> [[Richard Sakwa]] wrote that the Russian government is undoubtedly considered legitimate by the great majority of the Russian people and seeks to deliver a set of public goods without appealing to extra-democratic logic to achieve them, but whether the system was becoming an illiberal or delegative democracy was more contentious.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | ===Foreign relations===
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| - | ''See Also [[Foreign relations of Russia]]''
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| - | [[Image:BRIC leaders in 2008.jpg|thumb|Leaders of the [[BRIC]] nations in 2008: (l-r) [[Manmohan Singh]] of India, [[Dmitry Medvedev]] of Russia, [[Hu Jintao]] of China and [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] of Brazil.]]
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| - | The Russian Federation is recognized in international law as [[successor state]] of the former [[Soviet Union]].<sup>[]</sup> Russia continues to implement the international commitments of the USSR, and has assumed the USSR's permanent seat in the [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]], membership in other international organizations, the rights and obligations under international treaties, and property and debts. Russia has a multifaceted foreign policy. As of 2009, it maintains diplomatic relations with 191 countries and has [[Russian embassies|144 embassies]]. The foreign policy is determined by the President and implemented by the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia]].<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | As the successor to a former superpower, Russia's geopolitical status has been often debated, particularly in relation to [[Polarity in international relations|unipolar and multipolar]] views on the global political system. While Russia is commonly accepted to be a [[great power]], in recent years it has been characterized by a number of world leaders,<sup>[]</sup><sup>[]</sup> scholars,<sup>[]</sup> commentators and politicians<sup>[]</sup> as a currently reinstating or [[potential superpower]].<sup>[]</sup> However, such a characterization has been disputed by others.<sup>[]</sup><sup>[]</sup>
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| - | An important aspect of Russia's relations with [[the West]] is the criticism of Russia's political system and human rights management by the Western governments, the mass media and the leading democracy and human rights watchdogs. In particular, such organisations as the [[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]] consider Russia to have not enough democratic attributes and to allow few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.<sup>[]</sup><sup>[]</sup> US-funded international organization [[Freedom House]] ranks Russia as "not free", citing "carefully engineered elections" and "absence" of debate.<sup>[]</sup> Russian authorities dismiss these claims and especially criticise [[Freedom House]]. The [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia]] has called the 2006 [[Freedom in the World (report)|Freedom in the World Report]] "prefabricated", stating that the human rights issues have been turned into a political weapon in particular by the [[U. S.]] The ministry also claims that such organizations as Freedom House and Human Rights Watch use the same scheme of voluntary extrapolation of ''"isolated facts that of course can be found in any country"'' into ''"dominant tendencies"''.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council, Russia plays a major role in maintaining international peace and security. The country participates in the [[Quartet on the Middle East]] and the [[Six-party talks]] with [[North Korea]]. Russia is a member of the [[Group of Eight]] (G8) industrialized nations, the [[Council of Europe]], [[OSCE]] and [[APEC]]. Russia usually takes a leading role in regional organizations such as the [[CIS]], [[EurAsEC]], [[CSTO]], and the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]].<sup>[]</sup> Former President Vladimir Putin had advocated a strategic partnership with close integration in various dimensions including establishment of [[EU-Russia Common Spaces]].<sup>[]</sup> Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia has developed a friendlier, albeit volatile [[NATO-Russia relations|relationship]] with [[NATO]]. The [[NATO-Russia Council]] was established in 2002 to allow the 26 Allies and Russia to work together as equal partners to pursue opportunities for joint collaboration.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | Russia maintains strong and positive relations with other [[BRIC countries]]. In recent years, the country has sought to strengthen ties especially with the [[People's Republic of China]] by signing the [[Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation Between the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation|Treaty of Friendship]] as well as building the [[Trans-Siberian oil pipeline]] geared toward growing Chinese energy needs.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | ===Military===
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| - | ''See Also [[Armed Forces of the Russian Federation]]''
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| - | [[Image:2010 Moscow Victory Day Parade-37.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Russian Knights]] and [[Strizhi|Swifts]] military [[aerobatics|aerobatic]] teams flying in a rhombus]]
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| - | The Russian military is divided into the [[Russian Ground Forces|Ground Forces]], [[Russian Navy|Navy]], and [[Russian Air Force|Air Force]]. There are also three independent arms of service: [[Strategic Rocket Forces]], [[Russian Space Forces (VKS)|Military Space Forces]], and the [[Russian Airborne Troops|Airborne Troops]]. In 2006, the military had 1.037 million personnel on active duty.<sup>[]</sup> It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be [[conscription|drafted]] for a year of service in Armed Forces.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | Russia has [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction|the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons]] in the world. It has the second largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines and is the only country apart from the U.S. with a modern [[strategic bomber]] force.<sup>[]</sup><sup>[]</sup> Russia's [[tank]] force is the largest in the world, its surface navy and air force are among the strongest.
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| - | The country has a large and fully indigenous [[Defense industry of Russia|arms industry]], producing most of its own military equipment with only few types of weapons imported. Russia is the world's top supplier of arms, a spot it has held since 2001, accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales<sup>[]</sup> and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | Official government military spending for 2008 was $58 billion, the [[List of countries by military expenditure|fifth largest in the world]], though various sources have estimated Russia’s military expenditures to be considerably higher.<sup>[]</sup><sup>[]</sup> Currently, a major equipment upgrade worth about $200 billion is on its way between 2006 and 2015.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | ===Administrative divisions===
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| - | {{Main|Subdivisions of Russia}}
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| - | [[File:Russian-regions.png|thumb|centre|600px|Map of the [[federal subjects of Russia|federal subjects]] of the Russian Federation.]]
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| - | ;Federal subjects
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| - | The Russian Federation comprises 83 [[federal subjects]].<sup>[]</sup> These subjects have equal representation—two delegates each—in the [[Federation Council]].<sup>[]</sup> However, they differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.
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| - | * 46 [[oblasts of Russia|oblasts]] (provinces): most common type of federal subjects, with federally appointed governor and locally elected legislature.
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| - | * 21 [[republics of Russia|republics]]: nominally autonomous; each has its own constitution, president, and parliament. Republics are allowed to establish their own official language alongside Russian but are represented by the federal government in international affairs. Republics are meant to be home to specific ethnic minorities.
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| - | * 9 [[krais of Russia|krais]] (territories): essentially the same as oblasts. The "territory" designation is historic, originally given to frontier regions and later also to administrative divisions that comprised autonomous okrugs or autonomous oblasts.
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| - | * 4 [[autonomous okrugs of Russia|autonomous okrugs]] (autonomous districts): originally autonomous entities within oblasts and krais created for ethnic minorities, their status was elevated to that of federal subjects in the 1990s. With the exception of [[Chukotka Autonomous Okrug]], all autonomous okrugs are still administratively subordinated to a krai or an oblast of which they are a part.
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| - | * 1 [[autonomous oblast]] (the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]]): originally autonomous oblasts were administrative units subordinated to krais. In 1990, all of them except the Jewish AO were elevated in status to that of a republic.
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| - | * 2 [[federal cities]] (Moscow and St. Petersburg): major cities that function as separate regions.
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| - | ;Federal districts
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| - | Federal subjects are grouped into 8 [[federal districts]], each administered by an envoy appointed by the President of Russia.<sup>[]</sup> Unlike the federal subjects, the federal districts are not a subnational level of government, but are a level of administration of the federal government. Federal districts' envoys serve as liaisons between the federal subjects and the federal government and are primarily responsible for overseeing the compliance of the federal subjects with the federal laws.
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| - | ==Geography==
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| - | {{Main|Geography of Russia|Russian explorers}}
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| - | [[File:Russland Relief.png|thumb|left|280px|The topography of Russia]]
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| - | Russia is the [[largest country in the world]]; its total area is {{convert|17075400|km2|sqmi}}. There are 23 UNESCO [[World Heritage Sites in Russia]], 40 UNESCO [[biosphere reserve]]s,<sup>[]</sup> 40 [[National Parks of Russia|national parks]] and 101 [[Zapovednik|nature reserve]]. It lies between latitudes [[41st parallel north|41°]] and [[82nd parallel north|82° N]], and longitudes [[19th meridian east|19° E]] and [[169th meridian west|169° W]].
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| - | Russia has a wide natural resource base, including major deposits of [[timber]], petroleum, [[natural gas]], coal, ores and other mineral resources.
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| - | ===Topography===
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| - | The two widest separated points in Russia are about {{convert|8000|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} apart along a [[geodesic]] line. These points are: the boundary with Poland on a {{convert|60|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} long [[Vistula Spit]] separating the [[Gdańsk Bay]] from the [[Vistula Lagoon]]; and the farthest southeast of the [[Kuril Islands]]. The points which are furthest separated in [[longitude]] are {{convert|6600|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} apart along a geodesic line. These points are: in the west, the same spit; in the east, the [[Big Diomede Island]]. The Russian Federation spans 9 [[time zone]]s.
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| - | [[File:Mount Elbrus May 2008.jpg|thumb|[[Mount Elbrus]], the highest point of the [[Caucasus]], Russia and Europe]]
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| - | Most of Russia consists of vast stretches of plains that are predominantly [[steppe]] to the south and heavily forested to the north, with [[tundra]] along the northern coast. Russia possesses 10% of the world's [[arable land]].<sup>[]</sup> Mountain ranges are found along the southern borders, such as the [[Caucasus]] (containing [[Mount Elbrus]], which at {{convert|5642|m|0|abbr=on}} is the highest point in both Russia and Europe) and the [[Altai Mountains|Altai]] (containing [[Mount Belukha]], which at the {{convert|4506|m|0|abbr=on}} is the highest point of [[Siberia]] outside of the [[Russian Far East]]); and in the eastern parts, such as the [[Verkhoyansk Range]] or the volcanoes of [[Kamchatka Peninsula]] (containing [[Klyuchevskaya Sopka]], which at the {{convert|4750|m|0|abbr=on}} is the highest [[active volcano]] in Eurasia as well as the highest point of [[Asian Russia]]). The [[Ural Mountains]], rich in mineral resources, form a north-south range that divides Europe and Asia.
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| - | Russia has an extensive coastline of over {{convert|37000|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} along the Arctic and Pacific Oceans, as well as along the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Sea of Azov]], [[Black Sea]] and [[Caspian Sea]].<sup>[]</sup> The [[Barents Sea]], [[White Sea]], [[Kara Sea]], [[Laptev Sea]], [[East Siberian Sea]], [[Chukchi Sea]], [[Bering Sea]], [[Sea of Okhotsk]], and the [[Sea of Japan]] are linked to Russia via the Arctic and Pacific. Russia's major islands and archipelagos include [[Novaya Zemlya]], the [[Franz Josef Land]], the [[Severnaya Zemlya]], the [[New Siberian Islands]], [[Wrangel Island]], the [[Kuril Islands]], and [[Sakhalin]]. The [[Diomede Islands]] (one controlled by Russia, the other by the U.S.) are just {{convert|3|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} apart, and [[Kunashir Island]] is about {{convert|20|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} from [[Hokkaidō]], Japan.
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| - | [[File:Осетр река.jpg|thumb|left|[[Central Russian Upland]] near [[Zaraysk]], [[Moscow Oblast]]]]
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| - | Russia has thousands of rivers and inland bodies of water providing it with one of the world's largest [[surface water resources]]. The largest and most prominent of Russia's bodies of fresh water is [[Lake Baikal]], the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious freshwater lake.<sup>[]</sup> Baikal alone contains over one fifth of the world's fresh surface water.<sup>[]</sup> Other major lakes include [[Lake Ladoga|Ladoga]] and [[Lake Onega|Onega]], two of the [[largest lakes in Europe]]. Russia is second only to Brazil in volume of the [[total renewable water resources]]. Of the country's 100,000 rivers,<sup>[]</sup> the [[Volga]] is the most famous, not only because it is the [[longest river in Europe]], but also because of its major role in Russian history.<sup>[]</sup> The Siberian rivers [[Ob River|Ob]], [[Yenisey]], [[Lena River|Lena]] and [[Amur River|Amur]] are among the very [[longest rivers in the world]].
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| - | ===Climate===
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| - | ''See Also [[Climate of Russia]]''
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| - | [[Image:Archangelsk taiga.JPG|thumb|[[Taiga]] forest in winter, [[Arkhangelsk Oblast]]]]
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| - | The enormous size of Russia and the remoteness of many areas from the sea result in the dominance of the [[humid continental climate]], which is prevalent in all parts of the country except for the tundra and the extreme southeast. Mountains in the south obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the [[Indian Ocean]], while the plain of the west and north makes the country open to Arctic and Atlantic influences.<sup>[]</sup>
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| - | Most of Northern European Russia and [[Siberia]] has a [[subarctic climate]], with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of Northeast Siberia (mostly the [[Sakha Republic]], where the Northern [[Pole of Cold]] is located with the record low temperature of {{convert|−68|°C|°F|1|disp=s}}), and more moderate elsewhere. The strip of land along the shore of the Arctic Ocean, as well as the [[Russian Arctic islands]], have a [[polar climate]].
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| - | The coastal part of [[Krasnodar Krai]] on the [[Black Sea]], most notably in [[Sochi]], possesses a [[humid subtropical climate]] with mild and wet winters. Winter is dry compared to summer in many regions of East Siberia and the Far East, while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as [[snow]]. The region along the Lower [[Volga]] and [[Caspian Sea]] coast, as well as some areas of southernmost Siberia, possesses a [[semi-arid climate]].
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| - | [[File:Birches near Novosibirsk in Autumn.jpg|thumb|left|A [[birch]] forest in [[Novosibirsk]]. Birch is a [[national tree]] of Russia.]]
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| - | Throughout much of the territory there are only two distinct seasons—winter and summer; spring and autumn are usually brief periods of change between extremely low temperatures and extremely high.<sup>[]</sup> The coldest month is January (February on the coastline), the warmest usually is July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.<sup>[]</sup> The continental interiors are the driest areas.
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