Hebrew alphabet
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Revision as of 13:09, 5 September 2009
Template:Contains Hebrew text Template:Infobox Writing system Template:Alphabet Template:About
The Hebrew alphabet (Template:Lang-he-n,<ref>"Aleph-bet" is commonly written in Israeli Hebrew without the maqaph (מקף, hyphen), אלפבית עברי, as opposed to with the hyphen, אלף־בית עברי</ref> Alephbet 'Ivri), known variously by scholars<ref>{{
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The Hebrew word for "alphabet" is alephbet (אלפבית), and it is derived from the first two letters of the Hebrew alphabet; Aleph and Bet. The Hebrew alphabet is not a true alphabet, it is in fact an abjad, having letters only for consonants. Like other abjads such as the Arabic alphabet, means were later devised to indicate vowels by separate vowel points, known in Hebrew as niqqud. In rabbinic Hebrew, the consonant letters אהוי are used as matres lectionis to represent vowels. The number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, their order, their names, and their phonetic values are virtually identical to those of the Aramaic alphabet.
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#if: A History of the Hebrew Language
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}}{{#if:||.}}</ref>, the Hebrew alphabet described in this article is a stylized form of the Aramaic alphabet, from which it descends and evolved from during the 3rd century BCE. Prior to this, Hebrew was written in the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet by the ancient Israelites, both Jews and Samaritans. It began to fall out of use by the Jews in the 5th century BCE when they adopted the Aramaic script of the Persian Empire (they in turn adopted the alphabet from the Arameans, forgoing the Old Persian cuneiform script, but have since then adopted the Perso-Arabic script), retaining the old script for a limited time thereafter only for the Tetragrammaton (the Name of God). The Samaritans, who now number less than one thousand people, have continued to use the Old Hebrew alphabet until today. The Samaritan script descends directly from the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet, however, because of the numerical advantage of Jews, it is Jewish script herein that is normatively called the "Hebrew alphabet." For other opinions, see below.
History
According to contemporary scholars, the original Hebrew script developed alongside others in the region during the course of the late second and first millennia BCE; it is closely related to the Phoenician script, which itself probably gave rise to the use of alphabetic writing in Greece (Greek). It is sometimes claimed that a distinct Hebrew variant, the original "Hebrew script", emerged around the 10th century BCE,<ref>Ancient Scripts.com:Old Hebrew</ref> and was widely used in the ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah until they fell in the 8th and 6th centuries BCE, respectively. But it is not straightforward to distinguish Israelite/Judahite scripts from others which were in use in the immediate area, most notably by the Moabites and Ammonites.
Following the Babylonian exile, Jews gradually stopped using the Hebrew script, and instead adopted the Aramaic script (another offshoot of the same family of scripts). This script, as used for writing Hebrew, later evolved into the Jewish, or "square" script, that is still used today. Closely related scripts were in use all over the Middle East for several hundred years, but following the rise of Christianity (and later, the rise of Islam), they gave way to the Roman and Arabic alphabets, respectively.
The Hebrew alphabet was later adapted in order to write the languages of the Jewish diaspora (Karaim, Judæo-Arabic, Ladino, Yiddish, etc.). The Hebrew alphabet was retained as the alphabet used for writing the Hebrew language during its rebirth in the 18th to 19th century.
In Jewish Religion
The letters of the Hebrew alphabet have played varried roles in Jewish religious literature over the centuries, primarily in mystical texts. Some sources in classical rabbinical literature seem to acknowledge the historical provenence of the currently-used Hebrew alphabet and deal with them as a mundane subject (the Jerusalem Talmud, for example, records that "the Israelites took for themselves square calligraphy", and that the letters "came with the Israelites from Ashur [Assyria]"<ref>Jerusalem Talmud, Tractate Sanhedrin 21b</ref>); others attribute signifigant mystical signifigance to the letters, connecting them with the process of creation or the redemption. In mystical conceptions of the alphabet the alphabet is considered eternal, pre-existant to the Earth, and the letters themselves are seen as having holiness and power, sometimes to such an extent that several stories from the Talmud illustrate the idea that they cannot be destroyed.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Pesach 87b, Avodah Zarah 18a</ref>
The idea of the letters' creative power finds its greatest vehicle in the Sefer Yezirah, or Book of Creation, a mystical text of uncertain origin which describes a story of creation highly divergent from that in the Book of Genesis, largely through exposition on the powers of the letters of the alphabet. The supposed creative powers of the letters are also referenced in the Talmud and Zohar.<ref>Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Berachot 55c</ref><ref>Zohar 1:3; 2:152</ref>
thumb|right|200px|The four-pronged Shin. Another book, the thirteenth-century Kabbalistic text Sefer HaTemunah, holds that a single letter of unknown pronunciation, held by some to be the four-pronged shin on one side of the teffilin box, is missing from the current alphabet. The world's flaws, the book teaches, are related to the absence of this letter, the eventual revelation of which will repair the universe.<ref>The Book of Letters. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, Woodstock. 1990</ref> Another example of messianic signifigance attached to the letters is the teaching of Rabbi Eliezer that the five letters of the alphabet with final forms hold the "secret of redemption".<ref>The Book of Letters. Woodstock, Vermont: Jewish Lights Publishing, Woodstock. 1990</ref>
In addition, the letters occasionaly feature in aggadic portions of non-mystical rabbinic literature. In such aggada the letters are often given anthropomorphic qualities and depicted as speaking to God. Commonly their shapes are used in parables to illustrate points of ethics or theology. An example from the Babylonian Talmud (a parable intended to discourage speculation about the universe before creation):
Extensive instructions about the proper methods of forming the letters are found in Mishnat Soferim, within Mishna Berura of Yisrael Meir Kagan.
Description
[[File:Mariamagdalena grt.jpg|thumb|Pseudo-Hebrew script on the bustier of Jan van Scorel's Maria Magdalena, 1530.]] In its traditional usage in Hebrew (as opposed to Yiddish and to some extent modern Israeli Hebrew), the Hebrew alphabet is an abjad: vowels are normally not indicated. Where they are, it is because a weak consonant such as Template:Hebrew aleph, Template:Hebrew hey, Template:Hebrew vav, or Template:Hebrew yod has combined with a previous vowel and become silent, or by imitation of such cases in the spelling of other forms. When used to write Yiddish, all vowels are indicated, using certain letters, either with or without niqqud-diacritics (e.g., respectively: "אָ", "יִ" or "י", "ע", see Yiddish orthography), except for Hebrew words, which in Yiddish are written in their Hebrew spelling.
To preserve the proper vowel sounds, scholars developed several different sets of vocalisation and diacritical symbols called niqqud (Template:Hebrew, literally "applying points"). One of these, the Tiberian system, eventually prevailed. Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, and his family for several generations, are credited for refining and maintaining the system. These points are normally used only for special purposes, such as Biblical books intended for study, in poetry or when teaching the language to children. The Tiberian system also includes a set of cantillation marks used to indicate how scriptural passages should be chanted, used in synagogue recitations of scripture (although these marks do not appear in the scrolls), called "trope". In everyday writing of modern Hebrew, niqqud are absent; however, patterns of how words are derived from Hebrew roots (called shorashim, or triliteral roots) allow Hebrew speakers to determine the vowel-structure of a given word from its consonants based on the word's context and part of speech.
Both the old Hebrew script and the modern Hebrew script have only one case, but some letters have special final forms, called sofit (Heb. סופית, meaning in this case "final" or "ending") form, used only at the end of a word, somewhat as in the Arabic and Mandaic alphabets.<ref>The Arabic letters have, in principle (as six of the primary letters can have only two variants), four forms, according to their place in the word. The same goes with the Mandaic ones, except for three of the 22 letters, which have only one form. For more information, see Arabic alphabet and Mandaic alphabet.</ref> As can be seen in the tables given here, only five letters have a sofit form: ך → כ (kaph and khaph), ם → מ (mem), ן → נ (nun), ף → פ (pe and phe), ץ → צ (tsadi or tsade).<ref>כ״ף, בי״ת and פ״א can only be read b, k and p, respectively, at the beginning of a word, while they will have the sole value of v, kh and ph in a sofit (final) position. In medial positions, both pronunciations are possible, but a dagesh may be inserted (in dictionaries or learning books) to know which pronunciation applies: בּ = b and ב = v, כּ = k and כ = kh, פּ =p and פ = ph.</ref> These are shown below the normal form, in the following table.
| Alef | Bet | Gimel | Dalet | He | Vav | Zayin | Het | Tet | Yod | Kaf |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| א | ב | ג | ד | ה | ו | ז | ח | ט | י | כ |
| ך | ||||||||||
| Lamed | Mem | Nun | Samekh | Ayin | Pe | Tsadi | Qof | Resh | Shin | Tav |
| ל | מ | נ | ס | ע | פ | צ | ק | ר | ש | ת |
| ם | ן | ף | ץ |
Note: The chart reads from right to left.
Pronunciation of letter names
See Hebrew phonology and Yiddish phonology for phonetic guides to the phonemic transcriptions.
| letter | Name of letter | Established pronunciation in English<ref name=dict>Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary</ref> | standard Israeli pronunciation | colloquial Israeli pronunciation (if differing) | Yiddish / Ashkenazi pronunciation | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MW<ref name=dict/> | Unicode | |||||
| א | Aleph | Alef | /ˈɑːlɛf/, /ˈɑːlɨf/ | /ˈalef/ | /ˈalɛf/ | |
| בּ | Beth | Bet | /bɛθ/, /beɪt/ | /bet/ | /bɛɪs/ | |
| ב | /vɛɪs/ | |||||
| ג | Gimel | Gimel | /ˈɡɪməl/ | /ˈɡimel/ | /ˈɡimːɛl/ | |
| ד | Daleth | Dalet | /ˈdɑːlɨθ/, /ˈdɑːlɛt/ | /ˈdalet/ | /ˈdaled/ | /ˈdalɛd/ |
| ה | He | He | /heɪ/ | /he/ | /hej/ | /hɛɪ/ |
| ו | Waw | Vav | /vɑːv/ | /vav/ | /vɔv/ | |
| ז | Zayin | Zayin | /ˈzaɪ.ɨn/ | /ˈzajin/ | /ˈzain/ | /ˈzajin/ |
| ח | Heth | Het | /hɛθ/, /xeɪt/ | /ħet/ | /χet/ | / χɛs/ |
| ט | Teth | Tet | /tɛθ/, /teɪt/ | /tet/ | /tɛs/ | |
| י | Yod | Yod | /jɔːd/ | /jod/ | /jud/ | /jud/ |
| כּ | Kaph | Kaf | /kɑːf/ | /kaf/ | /kɔf/ | |
| כ | /χɔf/ | |||||
| ך | Final Kaf | /kaf sofit/ | /laŋgɛ χɔf/ | |||
| ל | Lamed | Lamed | /ˈlɑːmɛd/ | /ˈlamed/ | /ˈlamɛd/ | |
| מ | Mem | Mem | /mɛm/ | /mem/ | /mɛm/ | |
| ם | Final Mem | /mem sofit/ | /ʃlɔs mɛm/ | |||
| נ | Nun | Nun | /nuːn/ | /nun/ | /nun/ | |
| ן | Final Nun | /nun sofit/ | /laŋɛ nun/ | |||
| ס | Samekh | Samekh | /ˈsɑːmɛk/ | /ˈsameχ/ | /ˈsamɛχ/ | |
| ע | Ayin | Ayin | /ˈaɪ.ɨn/ | /ˈʕajin/ | /ain/ | /ˈajin/ |
| פּ | Pe | Pe | /peɪ/ | /pe/ | /pej/ | /pɛɪ/ |
| פ | /fɛɪ/ | |||||
| ף | Final Pe | /pe sofit/ | /pej sofit/ | /laŋgɛ fɛɪ/ | ||
| צ | Sadhe | Tsadi | /ˈsɑːdə/, /ˈsɑːdi/ | /ˈtsadi/ | /ˈtsadik/ | /ˈtsɔdi/, /ˈtsɔdik/, /ˈtsadɛk/ |
| ץ | Final Tsadi | /ˈtsadi sofit/ | /ˈtsadik sofit/ | /laŋgɛ ˈtsadɛk/ | ||
| ק | Qoph | Qof | /kɔːf/ | /kof/ | /kuf/ | /kuf/ |
| ר | Resh | Resh | /rɛʃ/, /reɪʃ/ | /reʃ/ | /rejʃ/ | /rɛɪʃ/ |
| ש | Shin | Shin | /ʃiːn/, /ʃɪn/ | /ʃin/ | /ʃin, sin/ | |
| תּ | Tav | Tav | /tɑːf/, /tɔːv/ | /tav/ | /taf/ | /tɔv/, /tɔf/ |
| ת | /sɔv/, /sɔf/ | |||||
Orthographic variants
The following table displays orthographic variants of each letter. For the five letters that have a different final form used at the end of words, the final forms are displayed beneath the regular form.
The three lettering variants currently in use are block, cursive and Rashi. Block and Rashi are used in books. Block lettering dominates, with Rashi lettering typically used for certain editorial inserts (as in the glosses of Isserles to the Shulchan Aruch) or biblical commentaries (as in the commentary of Rashi) in various standard literary works. Cursive is used almost exclusively when handwriting, unless block lettering is desired for stylistic purposes (as in signage).
For additional ancestral scripts, see Ancestral scripts and script variants.
Yiddish symbols
| Symbol | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Template:Hebrew | These are intended for Yiddish. They are not used in Hebrew<ref name="double_vav_non_standard">However, וו (two separate vavs), used in Ktiv male, is to be distinguished from the Yiddish ligature װ (also two vavs but together as one character).</ref>. See: Yiddish orthography. |
| Template:Hebrew | The rafe (Template:Hebrew) niqqud is no longer used in Hebrew. It is still seen in Yiddish. In masoretic manuscripts, the soft fricative consonants are indicated by a small line on top of the letter. Its use has been largely discontinued in printed texts. |
Numeric values of letters
Hebrew letters are also used to denote numbers, nowadays used only in specific contexts, e.g. denoting dates in the Hebrew calendar, denoting grades of school in Israel, other listings (e.g. שלב א׳, שלב ב׳ – "phase a, phase b"), commonly in Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism) in a practice known as gematria, and often in religious contexts.
| letter | numeric value | letter | numeric value | letter | numeric value | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| א | 1 | י | 10 | ק | 100 | ||
| ב | 2 | כ | 20 | ר | 200 | ||
| ג | 3 | ל | 30 | ש | 300 | ||
| ד | 4 | מ | 40 | ת | 400 | ||
| ה | 5 | נ | 50 | ך | 500 | ||
| ו | 6 | ס | 60 | ם | 600 | ||
| ז | 7 | ע | 70 | ן | 700 | ||
| ח | 8 | פ | 80 | ף | 800 | ||
| ט | 9 | צ | 90 | ץ | 900 |
The numbers 500, 600, 700, 800 and 900 are often represented by the juxtapositions ק״ת, ר״ת, ש״ת, ת״ת, and ק״תת respectively. Adding a geresh ("׳") to a letter multiplies its value by one thousand, for example, the year 5769 is portrayed as ה׳תשס״ט, where ה represents 5000, and תשס״ט represents 769.
Transliterations and Transcriptions of Hebrew Letters
Main articles: Romanization of Hebrew, Hebrew phonology
The following table lists transliterations and transcriptions of Hebrew letters used in Modern Hebrew. For Hebrew vowel diacritics, see niqqud; for the phonology of Biblical Hebrew, see Biblical Hebrew; for the Yiddish language, see Yiddish orthography and Yiddish phonology.
Clarifications:
- For some letters, the Academy of the Hebrew Language offers a precise transliteration which differs from the regular standard it has set. When omitted, no such precise alternative exists and the regular standard applies.
- The IPA phonemic transcription is specified whenever it uses a different symbol than the one used for the regular standard Israeli transliteration.
- The IPA phonetic transcription is specified whenever it differs from IPA phonemic transcription.
Note: SBL's transliteration system, recommended in its Handbook of Style<ref name=SBL>See online overview at Biblical Hebrew Resources</ref>, differs slightly from the 2006 precise transliteration system of the Academy of the Hebrew Language; for "ו" SBL uses "v" (≠ AHL "w"), for "צ" SBL uses "ṣ" (≠ AHL "ẓ"), and for בג״ד כפ״ת with no dagesh, SBL uses the same symbols as for with dagesh (i.e. "b", "g", "d", "k", "f", "t").
| Click "show" to view extended table including examples. | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hebrew letter | example | Translation | Standard Israeli transliteration – regular<ref name=akademya>Transliteration guidelines by the Academy of the Hebrew Language, November 2006</ref> | example | standard Israeli transliteration – precise<ref name=akademya/> | example | IPA phonemic transcription | example | IPA phonetic transcription | example | ||||
| א consonantal, in initial word positions | אִם | if | none(1) | im | [ʔ] | [ʔim] | ||||||||
| א consonantal, in non initial word positions | שָׁאַל | asked | ' | sha'ál | ʾ | shaʾál | /ʔ/ | /ʃaˈʔal/ | ||||||
| א silent | רִאשׁוֹן | first | none(1) | rishón | ||||||||||
| בּ | בֵּן | son | b | ben | ||||||||||
| ב | טוֹב | good | v | tov | ||||||||||
| גּ | גַּג | roof | g | gag | g | gaḡ | ||||||||
| ג | ḡ | |||||||||||||
| ג׳ | ג׳וּק | roach | ǧ(2) <ref name=foreign_sounds>Transliteration guidelines preceding 2006-update, p. 2 Academy of the Hebrew Language</ref> | ǧuk | /d͡ʒ/ | /d͡ʒuk/ | ||||||||
| דּ | דּוּד | boiler | d | dud | d | duḏ | ||||||||
| ד | ḏ | |||||||||||||
| ה consonantal | הֵד | echo | h | hed | ||||||||||
| ה silent | פֹּה | here | none(1) | po | ||||||||||
| ו consonantal | וָו | hook | v | vav | w | waw | ||||||||
| וּ | הוּא | he | u | hu | ||||||||||
| וֹ | לוֹ | to him | o | lo | [o̞] or [ɔ̝] | [lo̞, lɔ̝] | ||||||||
| ז | זֶה | this | z | ze | ||||||||||
| ז׳ | זָ׳רְגוֹן | jargon | ž(2) <ref name=foreign_sounds/> | žargón | /ʒ/ | /ʒarˈgon/ | ||||||||
| ח | חַם | hot | ẖ (3) | ẖam | ḥ | ḥam | /x/ or /χ/ | /xam/ | [χ] | [χam] | ||||
| dialectical [ħ] | [ħam] | |||||||||||||
| ט | קָט | tiny | t | kat | ṭ | kaṭ | ||||||||
| י consonantal | יָם | sea | y | yam | /j/ | /jam/ | ||||||||
| י part of hirik male (/i/ vowel) | בִּי | in me | i | bi | ||||||||||
| י part of tsere male (/e/ vowel or /ei/ diphthong) | מֵידָע | information | e | medá | é | médá | /e/ or /ej/ | /meˈda/ or /mejˈda/ | ||||||
| כּ, ךּ(4) | כֹּה | so | k | ko | ||||||||||
| כ, ך | סְכָךְ | branch-roofing | kh (3) | skhakh | ḵ | sḵaḵ | /x/ or /χ/ | /sxax/ | [χ] | [sχaχ] | ||||
| ל | לִי | to me | l | li | ||||||||||
| מ, ם | מוּם | defect | m | mum | ||||||||||
| נ, ן | נִין | great-grandson | n | nin | ||||||||||
| ס | סוֹף | end | s | sof | ||||||||||
| ע in initial or final word positions | עַדְלֹאיָדַע | Purim-parade | none(1) | adloyáda | ʿ | ʿadloyádaʿ | only in initial word position [ʔ] | [ˌʔadlo̞ˈjada] | ||||||
| dialectical /ʕ/ | /ˌʕadloˈjadaʕ/ | |||||||||||||
| ע in medial word positions | מוֹעִיל | useful | ' | mo'íl | ʿ | moʿíl | /ʔ/ | /moˈʔil/ | ||||||
| dialectical /ʕ/ | /moˈʕil/ | |||||||||||||
| פּ(5) | טִיפּ | tip | p | tip | ||||||||||
| פ, ף | פִסְפֵס | missed | f | fisfés | ||||||||||
| צ, ץ | צִיץ | bud | ts | tsits | ẓ | ẓiẓ | /t͡s/ | /t͡sit͡s/ | ||||||
| צ׳, ץ׳ | ריצ׳רץ׳ | zip | č(2) <ref name=foreign_sounds/> | ríčrač | /t͡ʃ/ | /ˈrit͡ʃrat͡ʃ/ | ||||||||
| ק | קוֹל | sound | k | kol | q | qol | ||||||||
| ר | עִיר | city | r | ir | [ʀ] or [ʁ] | [iʀ] or [iʁ] | ||||||||
| שׁ | שָׁם | there | sh | sham | š | šam | /ʃ/ | /ʃam/ | ||||||
| שׂ | שָׂם | put | s | sam | ś | śam | ||||||||
| תּ | תּוּת | strawberry | t | tut | t | tuṯ | ||||||||
| ת | ṯ | |||||||||||||
|
(1)In transliterations of modern Israeli Hebrew, initial and final ע (in regular transliteration), silent or initial א, and silent ה are not transliterated. To the eye of readers orientating themselves on Latin (or similar) alphabets, these letters might seem to be transliterated as vowel letters; however, these are in fact transliterations of the vowel diacritics – niqqud (or are representations of the spoken vowels). E.g., in אִם ("if", [ʔim]), אֵם ("mother", [ʔe̞m]) and אֹם ("nut", [ʔo̞m]), the letter א always represents the same consonant: [ʔ] (glottal stop), whereas the vowels /i/, /e/ and /o/ respectively represent the spoken vowel, whether it is orthographically denoted by diacritics or not. Since the Academy of the Hebrew Language ascertains that א in initial position is not transliterated, the symbol for the glottal stop ʾ is omitted from the transliteration, and only the subsequent vowels are transliterated (whether or not their corresponding vowel diacritics appeared in the text being transliterated), resulting in "im", "em" and "om", respectively. (2) The diacritic geresh – "׳" – is used with some other letters as well (ד׳, ח׳, ט׳, ע׳, ר׳, ת׳, see geresh), but only to transliterate from other lanaguages to Hebrew – never to spell Hebrew words; therefore they were not included in this table (correctly translating a Hebrew text with these letters would require using the spelling in the language from which the transliteration to Hebrew was originally made). The non-standard (i.e., inconsistently with the guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language) "ו׳" and "וו" are sometimes used to represent /w/, which like /d͡ʒ/, /ʒ/ and /t͡ʃ/ appears in Hebrew slang and loanwords. However, the guidelines of the Academy of the Hebrew Language specify that /w/ and /v/ be indistinguishably represented by "ו" (vav); see Hebrew Vav for the orthographic variants of vav. (3)The Sound /χ/ (as "ch" in loch) is often transcribed "ch", inconsistently with the guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language: "cham"; "schach". (4)"ךּ" (final kaf with dagesh) is rare but exists, e.g. last word in Deuteronomy 7 1 (דברים פרק ז׳ פסוק א׳) in the word "מִמֶּךָּ"<ref name=mimeka>תנ״ך מנוקד, דברים פרק ז׳</ref> (5)When representing /p/, pe is always written in its regular, not final, form "פ", even when in final word position, which occurs with loanwords (e.g. שׁוֹפּ /ʃop/ "shop"), foreign names (e.g. פִילִיפּ /ˈfilip/ "Philip") and some slang (e.g. חָרַפּ /χaˈrap/ "slept deeply"). | ||||||||||||||
| Hebrew letter | Standard Israeli transliteration – regular<ref name=akademya/> | standard Israeli transliteration – precise<ref name=akademya/> | IPA phonemic transcription | IPA phonetic transcription | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| א consonantal, in initial word positions | none(1) | [ʔ] | ||||||
| א consonantal, in non initial word positions | ' | ʾ | /ʔ/ | |||||
| א silent | none(1) | |||||||
| בּ | b | |||||||
| ב | v | |||||||
| גּ | g | g | ||||||
| ג | ḡ | |||||||
| ג׳ | ǧ(2) <ref name=foreign_sounds/> | /d͡ʒ/ | ||||||
| דּ | d | d | ||||||
| ד | ḏ | |||||||
| ה consonantal | h | |||||||
| ה silent | none(1) | |||||||
| ו consonantal | v | w | ||||||
| וּ | u | |||||||
| וֹ | o | [o̞] or [ɔ̝] | ||||||
| ז | z | |||||||
| ז׳ | ž(2) <ref name=foreign_sounds/> | /ʒ/ | ||||||
| ח | ẖ(3) | ḥ | /x/ or /χ/ | [χ] | ||||
| dialectical [ħ] | ||||||||
| ט | t | ṭ | ||||||
| י consonantal | y | /j/ | ||||||
| י part of hirik male (/i/ vowel) | i | |||||||
| י part of tsere male (/e/ vowel or /ei/ diphthong) | e | é | /e/ or /ej/ | |||||
| כּ, ךּ(4) | k | |||||||
| כ, ך | kh | ḵ | /x/ or /χ/ | [χ] | ||||
| ל | l | |||||||
| מ, ם | m | |||||||
| נ, ן | n | |||||||
| ס | s | |||||||
| ע in initial or final word positions | none(1) | ʿ | only in initial word position [ʔ] | |||||
| dialectical /ʕ/ | ||||||||
| ע in medial word positions | ' | ʿ | /ʔ/ | |||||
| dialectical /ʕ/ | ||||||||
| פּ(5) | p | |||||||
| פ, ף | f | |||||||
| צ, ץ | ts | ẓ | /t͡s/ | |||||
| צ׳, ץ׳ | č(2) <ref name=foreign_sounds/> | /t͡ʃ/ | ||||||
| ק | k | q | ||||||
| ר | r | [ʀ] or [ʁ] | ||||||
| שׁ | sh | š | /ʃ/ | |||||
| שׂ | s | ś | ||||||
| תּ | t | t | ||||||
| ת | ṯ |
(1)In transliterations of modern Israeli Hebrew, initial and final ע (in regular transliteration), silent or initial א, and silent ה are not transliterated. To the eye of readers orientating themselves on Latin (or similar) alphabets, these letters might seem to be transliterated as vowel letters; however, these are in fact transliterations of the vowel diacritics – niqqud (or are representations of the spoken vowels). E.g., in אִם ("if", [ʔim]), אֵם ("mother", [ʔe̞m]) and אֹם ("nut", [ʔo̞m]), the letter א always represents the same consonant: [ʔ] (glottal stop), whereas the vowels /i/, /e/ and /o/ respectively represent the spoken vowel, whether it is orthographically denoted by diacritics or not. Since the Academy of the Hebrew Language ascertains that א in initial position is not transliterated, the symbol for the glottal stop ʾ is omitted from the transliteration, and only the subsequent vowels are transliterated (whether or not their corresponding vowel diacritics appeared in the text being transliterated), resulting in "im", "em" and "om", respectively.
(2) The diacritic geresh – "׳" – is used with some other letters as well (ד׳, ח׳, ט׳, ע׳, ר׳, ת׳, see geresh), but only to transliterate from other languages to Hebrew – never to spell Hebrew words; therefore they were not included in this table (correctly translating a Hebrew text with these letters would require using the spelling in the language from which the transliteration to Hebrew was originally made). The non-standard (i.e., inconsistently with the guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language) "ו׳" and "וו" are sometimes used to represent /w/, which like /d͡ʒ/, /ʒ/ and /t͡ʃ/ appears in Hebrew slang and loanwords. However, the guidelines of the Academy of the Hebrew Language specify that /w/ and /v/ be indistinguishably represented by "ו" (vav); see Hebrew Vav for the orthographic variants of vav.
(3)The Sound /χ/ (as "ch" in loch) is often transcribed "ch", inconsistently with the guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language: "cham"; "schach".
(4)"ךּ" (final kaf with dagesh) is rare but exists, e.g. last word in Deuteronomy 7 1 (דברים פרק ז׳ פסוק א׳) in the word "מִמֶּךָּ"<ref name=mimeka/>
(5)When representing /p/, pe is always written in its regular, not final, form "פ", even when in final word position, which occurs with loanwords (e.g. שׁוֹפּ /ʃop/ "shop"), foreign names (e.g. פִילִיפּ /ˈfilip/ "Philip") and some slang (e.g. חָרַפּ /χaˈrap/ "slept deeply").
Pronunciation
The descriptions that follow are based on the pronunciation of modern standard Israeli Hebrew. For a concise summary, see the article International Phonetic Alphabet for Hebrew. For further information on regional and historical variations in pronunciation, see Hebrew phonology.
| Letters | א | בּ | ב | ג | גּ | ג׳ | ד | דּ | ד׳ | ה | ו | וּ | וֹ | וו , ו׳ (non-standard)<ref name="trans-into-heb"/> | ז | ז׳ | ח | ט | י |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| IPA | [ʔ], ∅ | [b] | [v] | [g] | [d͡ʒ] | [d] | [ð] | [h~ʔ], ∅ | [v] | [u] | [o̞] | [w] | [z] | [ʒ] | [χ]~[ħ] | [t] | [j] | ||
| Letters | ִי | כּ ךּ | ך כ | ל | ם מ | ן נ | ס | ע | פּ | פ ף | ץ צ | ץ׳ צ׳ | ק | ר | שׁ | שׂ | תּ | ת | ת׳ |
| IPA | [i] | [k] | [χ] | [l] | [m] | [n] | [s] | [ʔ]~[ʕ], ∅ | [p] | [f] | [t͡s] | [tʃ] | [k] | [ʁ] | [ʃ] | [s] | [t] | [θ] | |
Shin and sin
Shin and sin are represented by the same letter, Template:Hebrew, but are two separate phonemes. They are not mutually allophonic. When vowel diacritics are used, the two phonemes are differentiated with a shin-dot or sin-dot; the shin-dot is above the upper-right side of the letter, and the sin-dot is above the upper-left side of the letter.
| Symbol | Name | Transliteration | IPA | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Hebrew (left dot) | sin | s | /s/ | sour |
| Template:Hebrew (right dot) | shin | sh | /ʃ/ | shop |
Historically, left-dot-sin, corresponds to Proto-Semitic *Template:Transl, which in biblical-Judaic-Hebrew corresponded to a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative /ɬ/, as is evident in Greek translitaration of Hebrew words such as Balsam (בוֹשׂם)(the ls - 'שׂ') as is evident in the Targum OnkelosTemplate:Fact. Rendering of proto-semitic *Template:Transl as /ɬ/, is still evident in the Soqotri languageTemplate:Fact.
Dagesh
Historically, the consonants Template:Hebrew bet,beis, Template:Hebrew gimel, Template:Hebrew dalet, Template:Hebrew kaf,kof, Template:Hebrew pe,pey, and Template:Hebrew tav each had two sounds: one hard (plosive), and one soft (fricative), depending on the position of the letter and other factors. When vowel diacritics are used, the hard sounds are indicated by a central dot called dagesh (Template:Hebrew), while the soft sounds lack a dagesh. In modern Hebrew, however, the dagesh only changes the pronunciation of Template:Hebrew bet, Template:Hebrew kaf, Template:Hebrew pe, and Template:Hebrew tav (tav only changes in Ashkenazi (sof) and Yemenite pronunciations).
| With dagesh | Without dagesh | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Symbol | Name | Transliteration | IPA | Example | Symbol | Name | Transliteration | IPA | Example |
| Template:Hebrew | bet | b | /b/ | bun | Template:Hebrew | vet | v | /v/ | van |
| <ref>"ךּ" is rare but exists, e.g. last word in Deuteronomy 7 1 (דברים פרק ז׳ פסוק א׳) in the word "מִמֶּךָּ" – see תנ״ך מנוקד, דברים פרק ז׳</ref>Template:Hebrew | kaph | k | /k/ | kangaroo | Template:Hebrew | khaph | kh/ch/k | /χ/ | loch |
| Template:Hebrew | pe | p | /p/ | pass | Template:Hebrew | phe | ph/f | /f/ | find |
| Template:Hebrew | tav | t | /t/ | talent | Template:Hebrew | sav* | s | /s/ | sorry |
* Only in Ashkenazi pronunciations. In Israeli Hebrew, it is always a tav, with a /t/ sound.
** The letters gimmel (ג) and dalet (ד) also have dagesh (dotted) forms, but these do not differ phonetically from the forms without the dagesh in most of the Modern Hebrew dialects. Israeli Hebrew also exhibits no phonetic distinction between tav (ת) with or without a dagesh.
Identical pronunciation
In Israel's general population, many consonants have the same pronunciation. They are:
| Letters | Transliteration | Pronunciation (IPA) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Template:Hebrew aleph* | Template:Hebrew ayin* | - | /ʔ/ | ||
| Template:Hebrew vet (without dagesh) | Template:Hebrew vav | v | /v/ | ||
| Template:Hebrew chet | Template:Hebrew khaph (without dagesh) | kh/ch/h | /χ/ | ||
| Template:Hebrew tet | Template:Hebrew tav | t | /t/ | ||
| Template:Hebrew kaph (with dagesh) | Template:Hebrew qoph | k | /k/ | ||
| Template:Hebrew samekh | Template:Hebrew sin (with left dot) | s | /s/ | ||
| Template:Hebrew tsadi* | Template:Hebrew tav-samech* | and | Template:Hebrew tav-sin* | ts/tz | /ts/ |
* Varyingly
Ancient Hebrew pronunciation
Some of the variations in sound mentioned above are due to a systematic feature of Ancient Hebrew. The six consonants /b ɡ d k p t/ were pronounced differently depending on their position. These letters were also called BeGeDKePHeT letters (Template:Pron-en in English). (The full details are very complex; this summary omits some points.) They were pronounced as stops b ɡ d k p t at the beginning of a syllable, or when doubled. They were pronounced as fricatives v ɣ ð x f θ when preceded by a vowel (commonly indicated with a macron, ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ). The stop and double pronunciations were indicated by the dagesh. In Modern Hebrew the sounds ḏ and ḡ have reverted to [d] and [ɡ], respectively, and ṯ has become [t], so only the remaining three consonants /b k p/ show variation. Template:Hebrew "reish" may have also been a "doubled" letter, making the list BeGeD KePoReS and also rendering Hebrew one of the only languages to possess two 'r' sounds. (Sefer Yetzirah, 4:1, this depends on the antiquity of this book.)
- Template:Hebrew vav was a semivowel /w/ (as in English, not as in German).
- Template:Hebrew chet and Template:Hebrew ayin were pharyngeal fricatives, Template:Hebrew tsadi was an emphatic /s/, Template:Hebrew tet was an emphatic /t/, and Template:Hebrew qoph was /q/. All these are common Semitic consonants.
- Template:Hebrew sin (the /s/ variant of Template:Hebrew shin) was originally different from both Template:Hebrew shin and Template:Hebrew samekh, but had become /s/ the same as Template:Hebrew samekh by the time the vowel pointing was devised. Because of cognates with other Semitic languages, this phoneme is known to have originally been a lateral consonant, most likely the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative /ɬ/ (the sound of modern Welsh ll) or the voiceless alveolar lateral affricate /tɬ/ (like Náhuatl tl).
Vowels
Matres lectionis
Template:Hebrew aleph, Template:Hebrew he, Template:Hebrew vav and Template:Hebrew yod are letters that can sometimes indicate a vowel instead of a consonant (which would be, repectively, /ʔ/, /h/, /v/ and /j/). When they do, Template:Hebrew and Template:Hebrew are considered to constitute part of the vowel designation in combination with a niqqud symbol – a vowel diacritic (whether or not the diacritic is marked), whereas Template:Hebrew and Template:Hebrew are considered to be mute, their role being purely indicative of the non-marked vowel.
Letter Name
of letterConsonant
indicated
when letter
consonantalVowel
designationName of
vowel designationIndicated
Vowelא aleph /ʔ/ — — ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô ה he /h/ — — ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô ו vav /v/ וֹ ḥolám malé ô וּ shurúq û י yud /j/ יִ ḥiríq malé î יֵ tseré malé ê, ệ
Vowel points
Niqqud is the system of dots the help determine vowels and consonants. In Hebrew, all forms of niqqud are often omitted in writing, except for children's books, prayer books, poetry, foreign words, and words which would be ambiguous to pronounce. Israeli Hebrew has five vowel phonemes, /i e a o u/, but many more written symbols for them:
| Name | Symbol | Israeli Hebrew | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| IPA | Transliteration | English example | ||
| Hiriq | Image:4 Hiriq.PNG | [i] | i | see |
| Zeire | Image:5 Zeire.PNG | [ɛ] and [ɛi] | e and ei | men, main |
| Segol | Image:6 Segol.PNG | [ɛ], ([ɛi] with succeeding yod) | e, (ei with succeeding yod) | men |
| Patach | Image:7 Patah.PNG | [a] | a | car |
| Kamatz | Image:8 Qamaz.PNG | [a], <car>(or [ɔ]) | a, (or o)</car> | car |
| Holam | סׁ | [ɔ] | o | cone |
| Shuruk | Image:Equal Shuruk.PNG | [u] | u | tube |
| Kubutz | Image:Backslash Qubuz.PNG | [u] | u | tube |
Note Ⅰ: The symbol "O" represents whatever Hebrew letter is used.
Note Ⅰ: The zeire is pronounced correctly as ei in modern Hebrew.
Note Ⅱ: The dagesh, mappiq, and shuruk have different functions, even though they look the same.
Note Ⅲ: The letter ו (vav) is used since it can only be represented by that letter.
Sh'va
By adding two vertical dots (called Sh'va) underneath the letter, the vowel is made very short.
| Name | Symbol | Israeli Hebrew | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| IPA | Transliteration | English example | ||
| Shva | Image:Tilde Schwa.png | [ɛ] or Ø | apostrophe, e, or nothing | silent |
| Reduced Segol | Image:1 Hataf Segol.PNG | [ɛ] | e | men |
| Reduced Patach | Image:2 Hataf Patah.PNG | [a] | a | cup |
| Reduced Kamatz | Image:3 Hataf Qamaz.PNG | [ɔ] | o | cone |
Comparison table
| Vowel comparison table | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vowel Length (phonetically not manifested in Israeli Hebrew) | IPA | Transliteration | English example | ||
| Long | Short | Very Short | |||
| Template:Hebrew | Template:Hebrew | Template:Hebrew | [a] | a | spa |
| Template:Hebrew | Template:Hebrew | Template:Hebrew | [ɛ] | e | temp |
| Template:Hebrew | Template:Hebrew | Template:Hebrew | [ɔ] | o | cone |
| Template:Hebrew | Template:Hebrew | n/a | [u] | u | tube |
| Template:Hebrew | Template:Hebrew | [i] | i | ski | |
| Note I: | By adding two vertical dots (sh'va) Template:Hebrew the vowel is made very short. | ||||
| Note II: | The short o and long a have the same niqqud. | ||||
| Note III: | The short o is usually promoted to a long o in Israeli writing for the sake of disambiguation | ||||
| Note IV: | The short u is usually promoted to a long u in Israeli writing for the sake of disambiguation | ||||
Gershayim
The symbol Template:Hebrew is called a gershayim and is a punctuation mark used in the Hebrew language to denote acronyms. It is written before the last letter in the acronym. Gershayim is also the name of a note of cantillation in the reading of the Torah, printed above the accented letter.
Sounds represented with diacritic geresh
The sounds [t͡ʃ], [d͡ʒ], [ʒ], written "Template:Hebrew", "Template:Hebrew", "Template:Hebrew", and [w], non-standardly sometimes transliterated Template:Hebrew or Template:Hebrew<ref name="double_vav_non_standard" />, are often found in slang and loanwords that are part of the everyday Hebrew colloquial vocabulary. The apostrophe-looking symbol after the Hebrew letter modifies the pronunciation of the letter and is called a geresh. (As mentioned above, while still done, using Template:Hebrew to represent [w] is non-standard; standard spelling rules allow no usage of Template:Hebrew whatsoever.<ref name="trans-into-heb">{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }} issued by the Academy of the Hebrew Language states that both [v] and [w] be indistinguishably represented in Hebrew using the letter Vav. Sometimes the Vav is indeed doubled, however not to denote [w] as opposed to [v] but rather, when spelling without niqqud, to denote the phoneme /v/ at a non-initial and non-final position in the word, whereas a single Vav at a non-initial and non-final position in the word in spelling without niqqud denotes one of the phonemes /u/ or /o/. To pronounce foreign words and loanwords containing the sound [w], Hebrew readers must therefore rely on former knowledge and context, see also pronunciation of Hebrew Vav.</ref>)
| Hebrew slang and loanwords | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Name | Symbol | IPA | Transliteration | Example | ||
| Gimel with a geresh | Template:Hebrew | [d͡ʒ] | j or g | Jachnun | [ˈd͡ʒaχnun] | גָ׳חְנוּן |
| Zayin with a geresh | Template:Hebrew | [ʒ] | varies | Collage | [koˈlaʒ] | קוֹלָאז׳ |
| Tsadi with a geresh | Template:Hebrew | [t͡ʃ] | ch | Chupár (treat) | [t͡ʃuˈpar] | צ׳וּפָּר |
| Vav with a geresh or double Vav | Template:Hebrew or Template:Hebrew(non standard)<ref name="trans-into-heb"/> | [w] | w | Awánta (boastfulness) | [aˈwanta] | עָוָנְטָה |
The pronunciation of the following letters can also be modified with the geresh diacritic, the represented sounds are however foreign to Hebrew phonology, i.e., these symbols only represent sounds in foreign words or names when transliterated with the Hebrew alphabet, and never loanwords.
| Transliteration of non-native sounds | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Name | Symbol | IPA | Arabic letter | Example | Comment | |
| Dalet with a geresh | Template:Hebrew | [ð] | Ḏāl (ذ) Voiced th | Dhu al-Hijjah (ذو الحجة) | ד׳ו אל-חיג׳ה | * Also used for English voiced th * Often a simple ד is written. |
| Tav with a geresh | Template:Hebrew | [θ] | Ṯāʾ (ﺙ) Voiceless th | Thurston | ת׳רסטון | |
| Ḥet with a geresh | Template:Hebrew | [χ] | Ḫāʼ (خ) | Sheikh (شيخ) | שייח׳ | * Unlike the other sounds in this table, the sound [χ] represented by ח׳ is indeed a native sound in Hebrew; the geresh is however used only when transliteration must distinguish between [χ] and [ħ], in which case ח׳ transliterates the former and ח the latter, whereas in everyday usage ח without geresh is pronounced [ħ] only dialectically but [χ] commonly. |
| Resh with a geresh | Template:Hebrew | [ʁ] | Ġayn (غ) | Ghajar | ר׳ג׳ר | Sometimes an Ayin with a geresh (ע׳) is used to transliterate غ – inconsistently with the guidelines specified by the Academy of the Hebrew Language |
A geresh is also used to denote initialisms and to denote a Hebrew numeral. Geresh also is the name of one of the notes of cantillation in the reading of the Torah, but its appearance and function is different.
Unicode and HTML
The Unicode Hebrew block extends from U+0590 to U+05FF and from U+FB1D to U+FB40. It includes letters, ligatures, combining diacritical marks (niqqud and cantillation marks) and punctuation. The Numeric Character References is included for HTML. These can be used in many markup languages, and they are often used in Wiki to create the Hebrew glyphs compatible with the majority of web browsers.
See also
- Hebrew punctuation
- Significance of numbers of Judaism
- Mater lectionis
- History of the Hebrew language
- Syriac alphabet
- Niqqud
- Dagesh
- Gershayim
- Hebrew braille
- Cursive Hebrew
- Rashi script
- Ashuri alphabet
- Hebrew keyboard
- Romanization of Hebrew
- Help:IPA for Hebrew
- Hebrew phonology
- Inverted nun
- Koren Type
- Help:Hebrew
References
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Unknown extension tag "references"Bibliography
Roots of the Hebrew Alphabet
- Hoffman, Joel M. 2004. In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language. New York: New York University Press.
- Saenz-Badillos, Angel. 1993. A History of the Hebrew Language. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
- Steinberg, David. History of the Hebrew Language.
- Mathers table
- Aleph-Beth Quick Study Chart. February 28 2005. Qumran Bet Community. Retrieved January 5 2006.
External links
- Hebrew alphabet lesson
- How to draw letters
- Official Unicode standards document for Hebrew
- Transliterate your English name into Hebrew Letters
Keyboards
- LiteType.com - Virtual & Interactive Hebrew Keyboard
- Hebrew translit - for typing Hebrew with an English keyboard (transliteration with niqqud)
- Mikledet.com - for typing Hebrew with an English keyboard (Hebrew layout and phonetic layout)
