Dead Sea

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The Dead Sea (البَحْر المَيّت, al-Baḥr El-Mayyit, "Dead Sea"; יָם הַ‏‏מֶּ‏‏לַ‏ח, Yām Ha-Melaḥ, "Sea of Salt"), also called the Salt Sea, is a salt lake in Jordan to the east and in the West Bank and Israel to the west. Its surface and shores are Template:Convert below sea level, the lowest elevation on the Earth's surface on dry land. The Dead Sea is Template:Convert deep, the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. It is also one of the world's saltiest bodies of water, with 33.7% salinity. Only Lake Assal (Djibouti), Garabogazköl and some hypersaline lakes of the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica (such as Don Juan Pond and perhaps Lake Vanda) have a higher salinity. It is 8.6 times as salty as the ocean. This salinity makes for a harsh environment where animals cannot flourish, hence its name. The Dead Sea is Template:Convert long and Template:Convert wide at its widest point. It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, and its main tributary is the Jordan River.

The Dead Sea has attracted visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years. Biblically, it was a place of refuge for King David. It was one of the world's first health resorts (for Herod the Great), and it has been the supplier of a wide variety of products, from balms for Egyptian mummification to potash for fertilizers. People also use the salt and the minerals from the Dead Sea to create cosmetics and herbal sachets.

Contents

Etymology

In Arabic the Dead Sea is called al-Bahr al-Mayyit ("the Dead Sea"), or less commonly baḥrᵘ lūṭᵃ (بحر لوط, "the Sea of Lot"). Another historic name in Arabic was the "Sea of Zoʼar", after a nearby town in biblical times. In Hebrew, the Dead Sea is Yām ha-Melaḥ, meaning "sea of salt" (Genesis 14,3). In prose sometime the term Yām ha-Māvet (ים המוות, "sea of death") is used. The bible also refers to it to as Template:Transl (ים המזרחי, "the Eastern sea") or Yām ha-‘Ărāvâ (ים הערבה, "Sea of the Arabah"). The Greeks called it Lake Asphaltites (Attic Greek ἡ Θάλαττα ἀσφαλτῖτης, hē Thálatta asphaltĩtēs, "the Asphaltite") sea.

Geography

Image:Dead Sea Galilee.jpg
Satellite photograph showing the location of the Dead Sea

The Dead Sea is an endorheic lake located in the Jordan Rift Valley, a geographic feature formed by the Dead Sea Transform (DST). This left lateral-moving transform fault lies along the tectonic plate boundary between the African Plate and the Arabian Plate. It runs between the East Anatolian Fault zone in Turkey and the northern end of the Red Sea Rift offshore of the southern tip of Sinai.

The Jordan River is the only major water source flowing into the Dead Sea, although there are small perennial springs under and around the Dead Sea, creating pools and quicksand pits along the edges.sup></sup> There are no outlet streams.

Rainfall is scarcely Template:Convert per year in the northern part of the Dead Sea and barely Template:Convert in the southern part. The Dead Sea zone's aridity is due to the rainshadow effect of the Judean Hills. The highlands east of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself.

To the west of the Dead Sea, the Judean Hills rise less steeply, and are much lower, than the mountains to the east. Along the southwestern side of the lake is a Template:Convert tall halite formation called "Mount Sodom".

Natural history

There are two contending hypotheses about the origin of the low elevation of the Dead Sea. The older hypothesis is that it lies in a true rift zone, an extension of the Red Sea Rift, or even of the Great Rift Valley of eastern Africa. A more recent hypothesis is that the Dead Sea basin is a consequence of a "step-over" discontinuity along the Dead Sea Transform, creating extension of the crust with consequent subsidence.

Around three million years ago what is now the valley of the Jordan River, Dead Sea, and Wadi Arabah was repeatedly inundated by waters from the Mediterranean Sea. The waters formed in a narrow, crooked bay which was connected to the sea through what is now the Jezreel Valley. The floods of the valley came and went depending on long scale climate change. The lake that occupied the Dead Sea Rift, named "Lake Sodom", deposited beds of salt, eventually coming to be Template:Convert thick.

According to geological theory, approximately two million years ago the land between the Rift Valley and the Mediterranean Sea rose to such an extent that the ocean could no longer flood the area. Thus, the long bay became a lake.

The first such prehistoric lake is named "Lake Gomorrah." Lake Gomorrah was a freshwater or brackish lake that extended at least Template:Convert south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea and Template:Convert north, well above the present Hula Depression. As the climate became more arid, Lake Gomorrah shrank and became saltier. The large, saltwater predecessor of the Dead Sea is called "Lake Lisan." thumb|right|Near Ein Gedi, salt builds up along the shores of the Dead Sea. [[File:HaliteEncrustedCobbleDeadSea.JPG|thumb|right|Cobble encrusted with halite evaporated from the Dead Sea near Ein Gedi.]] thumb|right|Pebbles cemented with halite on the western shore of the Dead Sea near Ein Gedi.

In prehistoric times great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Gomorrah. The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the Lisan Peninsula and Mount Sodom (on the southwest side of the lake). Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed, forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the pail. When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces, the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sodom stayed in place as high cliffs. (see salt domes)

From 70 000 to 12 000 years ago the lake level was Template:Convert to Template:Convert higher than its current level. This lake, called "Lake Lisan", fluctuated dramatically, rising to its highest level around 26,000 years ago, indicating very wet climate in the Near East. Sometime around 10 000 years ago the lake level dropped dramatically, probably to levels even lower than today. During the last several thousand years the lake has fluctuated approximately Template:Convert with some significant drops and rises. Current theories as to the cause of this dramatic drop in levels rule out volcanic activity, therefore it may have been a seismic event.

Climate

thumb|left|Many people believe that the mud of the Dead Sea has special healing and cosmetic uses. The Dead Sea's climate offers year-round sunny skies and dry air with low pollution. It has less than Template:Convert mean annual rainfall and a summer average temperature between Template:Convert. Winter average temperatures range between Template:Convert. The region has weakened ultraviolet radiation, particularly the UVB (erythrogenic rays), and an atmosphere characterized by a high oxygen content due to the high barometric pressure.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> The sea affects temperatures nearby because of the moderating effect a large body of water has on climate. During the winter, sea temperatures tend to be higher than land temperatures, and vice versa during the summer months. This is the outcome of slow penetration of the sun's rays into the sea, which is a huge mass that takes a long time to warm up.

Chemistry

thumb|right|250px|A tourist (on the Jordanian side) demonstrates the unusual buoyancy caused by high salinity.

Until the winter of 1978-79, when a major mixing event took place,<ref name=overturn /> the Dead Sea was composed of two stratified layers of water that differed in temperature, density, age, and salinity. The topmost Template:Convert or so of the Dead Sea had a salinity that ranged between 300 and 400 parts per thousand and a temperature that swung between Template:Convert and Template:Convert. Underneath a zone of transition, the lowest level of the Dead Sea had waters of a consistent Template:Convert temperature and complete saturation of sodium chloride (NaCl).Template:Citation needed Since the water near the bottom is saturated, the salt precipitates out of solution onto the sea floor.

Beginning in the 1960s water inflow to the Dead Sea from the Jordan River was reduced as a result of large-scale irrigation and generally low rainfall. By 1975 the upper water layer of the Dead Sea was saltier than the lower layer. Nevertheless, the upper layer remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense. When the upper layer finally cooled down so that its density was greater than the lower layer, the waters of the Dead Sea mixed (1978-79). For the first time in centuries the lake was a homogeneous body of water. Since then stratification has begun to redevelop.<ref name=overturn>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref> thumb|right|250px|A rough Dead Sea, with salt deposits on cliffs. The mineral content of the Dead Sea is very different from that of ocean water. The exact composition of the Dead Sea water varies mainly with season, depth and temperature. In the early 1980s the concentration of ionic species (in g/kg) of Dead Sea surface water was Cl− (181.4), Br− (4.2), SO42− (0.4), HCO3− (0.2), Ca2+ (14.1), Na+ (32.5), K+ (6.2) and Mg2+ (35.2). The total salinity was 276 g/kg.<ref>I. Steinhorn, In Situ Salt Precipitation at the Dead Sea, Limnol. Oceanogr. 28(3),1983, 580-583</ref> These results show that w/w% composition of the salt, as anhydrous chlorides, was calcium chloride (CaCl2) 14.4%, potassium chloride (KCl) 4.4%, magnesium chloride (MgCl2) 50.8% and sodium chloride (common salt, NaCl) 30.4%. In comparison, the salt in the water of most oceans and seas is approximately 97% sodium chloride. The concentration of sulfate ions (SO42−) is very low, and the concentration of bromide ions (Br−) is the highest of all waters on Earth. Stubborn cases of psoriasis that seem to resist most therapies seem to yield to the combination of sea, air and sun along the Dead Sea Template:Citation needed. The sea itself is abundant in minerals acclaimed to have therapeutic value.

The salt concentration of the Dead Sea fluctuates around 31.5%. This is unusually high and results in a nominal density of 1.24 kg/L. Anyone can easily float in the Dead Sea because of natural buoyancy. In this respect the Dead Sea is similar to the Great Salt Lake in Utah in the United States.

One of the most unusual features of the Dead Sea is its discharge of asphalt. From deep seeps, the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles of the black substance. After earthquakes, chunks as large as houses have been found.Template:Citation needed

Health effects and therapies

The Dead Sea area has become a major center for health research and treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the water, the very low content of pollens and other allergens in the atmosphere, the reduced ultraviolet component of solar radiation, and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each have specific health effects. For example, persons suffering reduced respiratory function from diseases such as cystic fibrosis seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Sufferers of the skin disorder psoriasis also benefit from the ability to sunbathe for long periods in the area due to its position below sea level and subsequent result that many of the sun's harmful UV rays are reduced.<ref>S. Halevy et al. Dead sea bath salt for the treatment of psoriasis vulgaris: a double-blind controlled study. Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, Volume 9, Issue 3: 237-242.</ref>

Thus, the region's climate and low elevation have made it a popular center for several types of therapies:

Fauna and flora

[[File:Dead Sea Sunrise.jpg|thumb|250px|Dead Sea in the morning, seen from Masada]] The sea is called "dead" because its high salinity prevents macroscopic aquatic organisms, such as fish and aquatic plants, from living in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present.

In times of flood, the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35% salinity to 30% or lower. The Dead Sea temporarily comes to life in the wake of rainy winters. In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red. Researchers from Hebrew University found the Dead Sea to be teeming with a type of algae called Dunaliella. The Dunaliella in turn nourished carotenoid-containing (red-pigmented) halobacteria whose presence caused the colour change. Since 1980, the Dead Sea basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers.

Many animal species live in the mountains surrounding the Dead Sea. Hikers can see camels, ibex, hares, hyraxes, jackals, foxes, and even leopards. Hundreds of bird species inhabit the zone as well. Both Jordan and Israel have established nature reserves around the Dead Sea.

The delta of the Jordan river was formerly a veritable jungle of papyrus and palm trees. Flavius Josephus described Jericho as "the most fertile spot in Judea". In Roman and Byzantine times sugarcane, henna, and sycamore fig all made the lower Jordan valley quite wealthy. One of the most valuable products produced by Jericho was the sap of the balsam tree, which could be made into perfume. But by the 19th century Jericho's fertility had disappeared.

Human settlement

There are several small communities near the Dead Sea. These include the West Bank Israeli settlements in the Megilot Regional Council: Vered Yeriho, Kalya, Almog, Beit Ha'arava, Mitzpe Shalem and Avnat. There is a beautiful nature preserve at Ein Gedi, and the Dead Sea hotels are located on the southwest end at Ein Bokek near Neve Zohar. Highway 90 runs north-south on the Israeli side.

Potash City is a small community on the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea. Highway 65 runs north-south on the Jordanian side.

Human history

[[File:World's lowest point (1971).jpg|thumb|left|250px|World's lowest (dry) point, Jordan, 1971]]

The human history of the Dead Sea goes all the way back to remote antiquity. Bedouin tribes have continuously lived in the area.

In Judaism

Just north of the Dead Sea is Jericho. Somewhere, perhaps on the southeast shore, would be the cities mentioned in the Book of Genesis which were said to have been destroyed in the time of Abraham: Sodom and Gomorra (Genesis 18) and the three other "Cities of the Plain" - Admah, Zeboim and Zoar (Deuteronomy 29:23). But Zoar escaped destruction when Abraham's nephew Lot escaped there from Sodom (Genesis 19:21-22). Before the destruction, the dead sea was a valley full of natural tar pits, which was called the vale of Siddim. King David was said to have hidden from Saul at Ein Gedi nearby.

Hebrew Prophecies

In Template:Bibleverse-lb there is a specific prophecy that the sea will ".. be healed and made fresh", becoming a normal lake capable of supporting marine life. A similar prophecy is stated in Template:Bibleverse-lb, which says that "Living waters will go out from Jerusalem, half of them to the eastern sea (likely the Dead Sea) and half to the western sea (the Mediterranean)..."

Second Temple era

Dwelling in caves near the Dead Sea is recorded in the Hebrew Bible as having taken place before the Israelites came to Canaan, and extensively at the time of King David. Various sects of Jews settled in caves overlooking the Dead Sea. The best known of these are the Essenes of Qumran, who left an extensive library known as the Dead Sea Scrolls.<ref>Found today in the Shrine of the Book at the Israel Museum of Jerusalem</ref> The town of Ein Gedi, mentioned many times in the Mishna, produced persimmon for the temple's fragrance and for export, using a secret recipe. "Sodomite salt" was an essential mineral for the temple's holy incense, but was said to be dangerous for home use, and to cause blindness.<ref>Sodomite salt could cause blindness</ref>

The Roman camps surrounding Masada were built by Jewish slaves receiving water from the towns around the lake. These towns had drinking water from the Ein Feshcha springs and other sweetwater springs in the vicinity.<ref>A synagogue mosaic floor (circa 100 BCE) at Ein Gedi repeats the Mishna, portraying a curse on whoever reveals the town's secret persimmon recipe. Papyrus parchments found in caves near the Dead Sea document the vast amount of cultivated land in the area, especially persimmon trees, but also olive and date trees</ref>

Ancient Greek period

The Greeks knew the Dead Sea as "Lake Asphaltites", due to the naturally surfacing asphalt. Aristotle wrote about the remarkable waters. Later, the Nabateans discovered the value of bitumen extracted from the Dead Sea needed by the Egyptians for embalming their mummies.

Herodian period

King Herod the Great built or rebuilt several fortresses and palaces on the Western Bank of the Dead Sea. The most famous was Masada, where, in 70-73 CE, a small group of Jewish Zealots held out against the might of the Roman legion, and Machaerus where, according to Josephus, John the Baptist was imprisoned by Herod Antipas and died.<ref>Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 18.119.</ref>

Also in Roman times, some Essenes had settled on the Dead Sea's western shore; Pliny the Elder identifies their location with the words, "on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast ... [above] the town of Engeda" (Natural History, Bk 5.73); and it is therefore a hugely popular but contested hypothesis today, that same Essenes are identical with the settlers at Qumran and that "the Dead Sea Scrolls" discovered during the 20th century in the nearby caves had been their own library.

In Christianity

[[File:MountSodom061607.jpg|thumb|Mount Sodom, Israel, showing the so-called "Lot's Wife" pillar made of halite like the rest of the mountain.]] In the Bible the Dead Sea is called the Salt Sea, the Sea of the Arabah, and the Eastern Sea. The designation “Dead Sea” is a modern name which never appears in the Bible. The Dead Sea basin is another part of the Great Rift Valley. It is here that the Upper Jordan River/Sea of Galilee/Lower Jordan River water system comes to an end. Intimately connected with the Judean Wilderness to its northwest and west, the Dead Sea was a place of escape and refuge. The remoteness of the region attracted Greek Orthodox monks since the Byzantine era. Their monasteries such as Saint George in Wadi Kelt and Mar Saba in the Judean Desert are places of pilgrimage.

In Islam

In Islamic tradition, the Dead Sea was about the land in which the Prophet Lot lived. The people of the towns and cities in this vicinity were considered wicked for their acts of homosexuality, robbery and murder, and therefore God had ordained punishment to the people of Lot for these deeds. The punishment arrived when two angels in the form of handsome men were sent down by God as guests for Lot to host. When Lot's people heard of the men, they rushed to Lot's house with their explicit intentions and asked Lot to turn over these men to them. This was the final test for the people of Lot in which they failed so the angel Gabriel raised the land where the prophet's people lived, tipped it upside down and threw it back on earth, causing the ground near the impact to cave in. Thus, the lowest land on Earth was formed because of this punishment. The non-believers (in the monotheism doctrine) were destroyed and the followers were saved. According to some interpretations, the sura of ar-Rum of the Quran refers to the Dead Sea as the lowest place on Earth.<ref>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref><ref>Predictions in the Qur'an</ref>

Recent history

[[File:Turkish trenches at Dead Sea2.jpg|right|thumb|Turkish trenches at the shores of the Dead Sea, World War I, 1917.]]

More recently, explorers and scientists arrived in the area to analyze the minerals and research the unique climate. Tourism in the region has been developed since the 1960s.

The Dead Sea Scrolls were found in caves at Qumran at the Dead Sea. The world's lowest road, Highway 90, runs along the Israeli and West Bank shores of the Dead Sea at Template:Convert below sea level.

There are also health spas and hot springs along the shore, besides the unique water of the Dead Sea itself. A golf course named for Sodom and Gomorrah was built by the British at Kalia on the northern shore. The first major hotels were built in Israel, first at nearby Arad, and since the 1960s at the Neve Zohar resort complex. The Jordanian side has seen increasing development in recent years. For example, three international franchises have opened seaside resort hotels near the King Hussein Bin Talal Convention Center along the eastern coast of the Dead Sea.<ref name=Arabbiz>{{#invoke:citation/CS1|citation |CitationClass=web }}</ref>

Industry

[[File:STS028-96-65.jpg|thumb|right|View of salt evaporation pans on the Dead Sea, taken in 1989 from the Space Shuttle Columbia. The southern half is now separated from the northern half at what used to be the Lisan Peninsula because of the fall of the level of Dead Sea.]]

In the early part of the 20th century, the Dead Sea began to attract interest from chemists who deduced that the Sea was a natural deposit of potash and bromine. The Palestine Potash Company was chartered in 1929 after its founder, Siberian Jewish engineer and pioneer of Lake Baikal exploitation Moses Novomeysky, worked for the charter ex for over ten years. The first plant was on the north shore of the Dead Sea at Kalia and produced potash, or potassium chloride, by solar evaporation of the brine. Employing Arabs and Jews, it was an island of peace in turbulent times. The company quickly grew into the largest industrial site in the Middle EastTemplate:Citation needed and in 1934 built a second plant on the southwest shore, in the Mount Sodom area, south of the 'Lashon' region of the Dead Sea. Palestine Potash Company supplied half of Britain's potash during World War II, but ultimately became a casualty of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Its remnants were nationalised and Dead Sea Works Ltd. was established in 1952 in its stead as a state-owned company to extract potash and other minerals from the Dead Sea.

From the Dead Sea brine, Israel produces (2001) 1.77 million tons potash, 206,000 tons elemental bromine, 44,900 tons caustic soda, 25,000 tons magnesium metal, and sodium chloride. On the Jordanian side of the Dead Sea, Arab Potash (APC), formed in 1956, produces 2.0 million tons of potash annually, as well as sodium chloride and bromine. Both companies use extensive salt evaporation pans that have essentially diked the entire southern end of the Dead Sea for the purpose of producing carnallite, potassium magnesium chloride, which is then processed further to produce potassium chloride. The power plant on the Israeli side allows production of magnesium metal (by a subsidiary, Dead Sea Magnesium Ltd.). The salt evaporation pans are visible from space.

Due to the popularity of the sea's therapeutic and healing properties, several companies have also shown interest in the manufacturing and supplying of Dead Sea salts as raw materials for body and skin care products.

Recession and environmental concerns

[[File:DeadSeaLevelPEF.JPG|thumb|Line painted in 1900 (at top of image) by Robert A.S. Macalister of the Palestine Exploration Fund showing the level of the Dead Sea.]] In recent decades, the Dead Sea has been rapidly shrinking because of diversion of incoming water from the Jordan River to the north. The southern end is fed by a canal maintained by the Dead Sea Works, a company that converts the sea's raw materials. From a depression of Template:Convert below sea level in 1970<ref>C. Klein, A. Flohn, Contribution to the Knowledge in the Fluctuations of the Dead Sea Level. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, vol. 38, p. 151–156, 1987</ref> it fell Template:Convert to Template:Convert below sea level in 2006, reaching a drop rate of Template:Convert per year. Although the Dead Sea may never entirely disappear,Template:Citation needed because evaporation slows down as surface area decreases and salinity increases, it is feared that the Sea's characteristics may substantially change.Template:Citation needed

The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by a groundwater level drop, causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater. This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of large sinkholes along the western shore — incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers, rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes.<ref>M. Abelson, Y. Yechieli, O. Crouvi, G. Baer, D. Wachs, A. Bein, V. Shtivelman. "Evolution of the Dead Sea Sinkholes", in New Frontiers in Dead Sea Paleoenvironmental Research, Geological Society of America, special paper 401, p. 241–253, 2006</ref>

In May 2009 at the World Economic Forum, Jordan announced its plans to construct the "Jordan National Red Sea Development Project" (JRSP). This is a plan to convey seawater from the Red Sea near Aqaba to the Dead Sea. Water would be desalinated along the route to provide freshwater to Jordan, with the brine discharge sent to the Dead Sea for replenishment. As of 2009, the project is in its early phases of planning, with developer and financier selection to be completed by years end. The project is anticipated to begin detailed design in early 2010 with water delivery by 2017. Israel has expressed its support and will likely benefit from some of the water delivery to its Negev region. Some hydro-power will be collected near the Dead Sea from the dramatic change in elevation on the downhill side of the project.Template:Citation needed In October 2009, the Jordanians announced accelerated plans to extract around 300 million cubic metres of water per annum from the Red Sea, desalinate it for use as fresh water and send the waste water to the Dead Sea by tunnel, despite concerns about inadequate time to assess the potential environmental impact. <ref>Jordan to refill shrinking Dead Sea Daily Telegraph 13 October 2009</ref>

At a regional conference in July 2009, officials expressed increased concerns that water levels are dropping. Some suggested that various industrial activities around the Dead Sea might need to be reduced. Others advised a range of possible environmental measures to restore conditions. this might include increasing the volume of flow from the Jordan River to replenish the Dead Sea. Currently, only sewage and effluent from fishponds run in the river's channel. Experts also asserted a need for strict conservation efforts. They also said that agriculture should not be expanded, sustainable support capabilities should be incorporated into the area and pollution sources should be reduced.<ref> Back from the Dead?, Ehud Zion Waldoks, The Jerusalem Post, July 8, 2009.</ref>

Gallery

File:Dead Sea-14.jpg

Israeli highway beside the Dead Sea

File:Dead Sea-12.jpg

Twisty coastline

File:Dead Sea-9.jpg

Coastline (from Israel)

File:DeadSea03 ST 06.JPG

Dead Sea at dawn (from Sodom mountain, Israel)

File:Deadseadusk.jpg

Dead Sea at dusk (from Suwayma, Jordan)

File:DeadSeaSinkhole.jpg

Sinkholes at Mineral Beach

File:MassadaDeadSea.JPG

Dead Sea from Masada

See also

thumb|250px|The Dead Sea region

Further reading

  • Yehouda Enzel, et al., eds (2006) New Frontiers in Dead Sea Paleoenvironmental Research, Geological Society of America, ISBN 0-8137-2401-5
  • Niemi, Tina M., Ben-Avraham, Z., and Gat, J., eds., 1997, The Dead Sea: The Lake and Its Setting: N.Y., Oxford University Press, 286 p.

References

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External links

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