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| | '''Early Christianity''' is commonly defined as the [[Christianity]] of the roughly three centuries ([[Christianity in the 1st century|1st]], [[Christianity in the 2nd century|2nd]], [[Christianity in the 3rd century|3rd]], early [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th]]) between the [[Crucifixion of Jesus]] (c. 30) and the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325). The major [[primary source]] for the 1st century (the [[Apostolic Age]]) is the ''[[Acts of the Apostles]]'', but its [[Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles|historical accuracy is disputed]]. | | '''Early Christianity''' is commonly defined as the [[Christianity]] of the roughly three centuries ([[Christianity in the 1st century|1st]], [[Christianity in the 2nd century|2nd]], [[Christianity in the 3rd century|3rd]], early [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th]]) between the [[Crucifixion of Jesus]] (c. 30) and the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325). The major [[primary source]] for the 1st century (the [[Apostolic Age]]) is the ''[[Acts of the Apostles]]'', but its [[Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles|historical accuracy is disputed]]. |
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| - | At first, the church was centered in [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]], and leaders included [[James the Just|James]], [[Simon Peter|Peter]], and [[John the Apostle|John]].<sup>[1]</sup> Following the [[Great Commission]], the missionary activity of the [[Apostle (Christian)|Apostles]], including [[Paul the Apostle|Paul of Tarsus]], spread Christianity to cities throughout the [[Hellenistic]] world, such as [[Alexandria]] and [[Antioch]], and also to [[Ancient Rome|Rome]]<sup>[2]</sup>E. Glenn Hinson, ''The church triumphant: a history of Christianity up to 1300'', Mercer University Press, 1995.</ref> and even beyond the [[Roman Empire]]. The term "Christian" was first applied to members of the [[Christian Church|church]] at Antioch according to {{bibleverse||Acts|11:26}}. The [[New Testament]] includes [[Pauline epistles|letters written by Paul]] to churches, such as those in [[Thessalonica]] and [[Corinth]], during the years 50-62<sup>[3]</sup>, see also [[Seven Churches of Asia]]. Christians continued to revere the [[Hebrew Bible]], using the [[Septuagint]] translation that was in general use among [[Koine Greek|Greek]]-speakers, or the [[Targums]] in use among [[Aramaic]]-speakers, but [[Development of the New Testament canon|added to it their own writings]]. | + | At first, the church was centered in [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]], and leaders included [[James the Just|James]], [[Simon Peter|Peter]], and [[John the Apostle|John]].<sup>[1]</sup> Following the [[Great Commission]], the missionary activity of the [[Apostle (Christian)|Apostles]], including [[Paul the Apostle|Paul of Tarsus]], spread Christianity to cities throughout the [[Hellenistic]] world, such as [[Alexandria]] and [[Antioch]], and also to [[Ancient Rome|Rome]]<sup>[2]</sup> and even beyond the [[Roman Empire]]. The term "Christian" was first applied to members of the [[Christian Church|church]] at Antioch according to [[Acts 11:26]]. The [[New Testament]] includes [[Pauline epistles|letters written by Paul]] to churches, such as those in [[Thessalonica]] and [[Corinth]], during the years 50-62<sup>[3]</sup>, see also [[Seven Churches of Asia]]. Christians continued to revere the [[Hebrew Bible]], using the [[Septuagint]] translation that was in general use among [[Koine Greek|Greek]]-speakers, or the [[Targums]] in use among [[Aramaic]]-speakers, but [[Development of the New Testament canon|added to it their own writings]]. |
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| | In 70 the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Second Temple was destroyed]], and in c. 135 Jews were banned from the [[Aelia Capitolina|renamed]] city after the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]]. Among those who left the city were most of the Christian population.<sup>[2]</sup> Following this time, early [[History of early Christianity|Church historian]] [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] records that ethnically Jewish leadership of the church in [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]] (literally those "of the [[Circumcision controversy in early Christianity|circumcision]]") was replaced by Gentile leadership.<sup>[4]</sup> Similarly, [[Claudius]] expelled the Jews from Rome in 49, though [[Nero]] allowed their return but turned against Christians after the [[Great Fire of Rome]] of 64, the beginning of [[Persecution of Christians|persecution]] by Roman authorities.<sup>[5]</sup> Historians debate whether or not the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews prior to Nerva's modification of the [[Fiscus Judaicus]] in 96. (From then on, practising Jews paid the tax, Christians did not.)<sup>[6]</sup> | | In 70 the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Second Temple was destroyed]], and in c. 135 Jews were banned from the [[Aelia Capitolina|renamed]] city after the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]]. Among those who left the city were most of the Christian population.<sup>[2]</sup> Following this time, early [[History of early Christianity|Church historian]] [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] records that ethnically Jewish leadership of the church in [[Jerusalem in Christianity|Jerusalem]] (literally those "of the [[Circumcision controversy in early Christianity|circumcision]]") was replaced by Gentile leadership.<sup>[4]</sup> Similarly, [[Claudius]] expelled the Jews from Rome in 49, though [[Nero]] allowed their return but turned against Christians after the [[Great Fire of Rome]] of 64, the beginning of [[Persecution of Christians|persecution]] by Roman authorities.<sup>[5]</sup> Historians debate whether or not the Roman government distinguished between Christians and Jews prior to Nerva's modification of the [[Fiscus Judaicus]] in 96. (From then on, practising Jews paid the tax, Christians did not.)<sup>[6]</sup> |
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| | Christianity spread further during the [[Christianity in the 2nd century|second century]]. Notable leaders and writers of this time include [[Irenaeus]] of [[Lyon]],<sup>[5]</sup> [[Polycarp]] of [[Smyrna]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]],<sup>[5]</sup> [[Clement of Rome]], and [[Justin Martyr]]. During the [[Christianity in the 3rd century|third century]], Christianity further increased in numbers ([[Robin Lane Fox]] suggests that Christians composed about 2% of the Empire by 250<sup>[5]</sup>). Teachers of this period, including [[Origen]] in [[Alexandria]] and [[Tertullian]] in [[Carthage|North Africa]], expressed in their writings doctrines such as that of the [[Trinity]]. [[Anthony the Great]] and others established [[Christian monasticism]], and [[Gregory the Illuminator]] was responsible for [[Armenia]] becoming the first officially Christian country. Following the [[Constantine I and Christianity|conversion]] of [[Constantine I|Constantine the Great]] (just prior to the [[Battle of the Milvian Bridge]] in 312), the [[Roman Empire]] tolerated Christianity with the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313, leading later to the adoption of Christianity as the [[state religion]] in 380 by [[Theodosius I]] and the rise of [[Christendom]] in the [[Byzantine empire]]. | | Christianity spread further during the [[Christianity in the 2nd century|second century]]. Notable leaders and writers of this time include [[Irenaeus]] of [[Lyon]],<sup>[5]</sup> [[Polycarp]] of [[Smyrna]], [[Ignatius of Antioch]],<sup>[5]</sup> [[Clement of Rome]], and [[Justin Martyr]]. During the [[Christianity in the 3rd century|third century]], Christianity further increased in numbers ([[Robin Lane Fox]] suggests that Christians composed about 2% of the Empire by 250<sup>[5]</sup>). Teachers of this period, including [[Origen]] in [[Alexandria]] and [[Tertullian]] in [[Carthage|North Africa]], expressed in their writings doctrines such as that of the [[Trinity]]. [[Anthony the Great]] and others established [[Christian monasticism]], and [[Gregory the Illuminator]] was responsible for [[Armenia]] becoming the first officially Christian country. Following the [[Constantine I and Christianity|conversion]] of [[Constantine I|Constantine the Great]] (just prior to the [[Battle of the Milvian Bridge]] in 312), the [[Roman Empire]] tolerated Christianity with the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313, leading later to the adoption of Christianity as the [[state religion]] in 380 by [[Theodosius I]] and the rise of [[Christendom]] in the [[Byzantine empire]]. |
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| - | What started as a religious movement within first century Judaism therefore became, by the end of this period, the favored religion of the [[Roman Empire]], as well as a significant religion outside the empire.<sup>[5]</sup> According to [[Will Durant]], the [[Christian Church]] prevailed over [[Paganism]] because it offered a much more attractive doctrine and because the church leaders addressed human needs better than their rivals.<sup>[7]</sup>[[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972</ref> The First Council of Nicaea marks the end of this era and the beginning of the period of the [[first seven Ecumenical Councils]] (325 - 787). | + | What started as a religious movement within first century Judaism therefore became, by the end of this period, the favored religion of the [[Roman Empire]], as well as a significant religion outside the empire.<sup>[5]</sup> According to [[Will Durant]], the [[Christian Church]] prevailed over [[Paganism]] because it offered a much more attractive doctrine and because the church leaders addressed human needs better than their rivals.<sup>[7]</sup> The First Council of Nicaea marks the end of this era and the beginning of the period of the [[first seven Ecumenical Councils]] (325 - 787). |
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| | ==History== | | ==History== |
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| | The "Twelve Apostles", and [[Paul the Apostle]] who called himself the "Apostle to the Gentiles"<sup>[21]</sup>, also gained converts among the gentiles (non-Jews), following the [[Great Commission]]'s decree to "go and make [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] of all nations". The leaders of the church affirmed Paul's mission to the Gentiles at the [[Council of Jerusalem]], ''c'' 49. Paul met with great success preaching to Gentiles, and Gentiles became an increasingly large part of the Christian population. In [[Galatians 2:11]]-[[Galatians 2:14|14]] (the [[Incident at Antioch]]<sup>[22]</sup>) Paul portrays Peter as impeding his efforts.<sup>[3]</sup> The author of Acts portrays Paul as a torah-observant Jew and does not mention this dispute with Peter.<sup>[23]</sup> Also, in [[Acts 11:1]]-[[Acts 11:18|18]], it is Peter who first actively welcomes Gentiles into the Church, and in [[Acts 15]] it is Peter who argues the gentile case at the ''Council of Jerusalem'' (for the parallel in Judaism, see [[Noachide law]], for the parallel in modern Christianity, see [[Dual-covenant theology]]). | | The "Twelve Apostles", and [[Paul the Apostle]] who called himself the "Apostle to the Gentiles"<sup>[21]</sup>, also gained converts among the gentiles (non-Jews), following the [[Great Commission]]'s decree to "go and make [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] of all nations". The leaders of the church affirmed Paul's mission to the Gentiles at the [[Council of Jerusalem]], ''c'' 49. Paul met with great success preaching to Gentiles, and Gentiles became an increasingly large part of the Christian population. In [[Galatians 2:11]]-[[Galatians 2:14|14]] (the [[Incident at Antioch]]<sup>[22]</sup>) Paul portrays Peter as impeding his efforts.<sup>[3]</sup> The author of Acts portrays Paul as a torah-observant Jew and does not mention this dispute with Peter.<sup>[23]</sup> Also, in [[Acts 11:1]]-[[Acts 11:18|18]], it is Peter who first actively welcomes Gentiles into the Church, and in [[Acts 15]] it is Peter who argues the gentile case at the ''Council of Jerusalem'' (for the parallel in Judaism, see [[Noachide law]], for the parallel in modern Christianity, see [[Dual-covenant theology]]). |
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| - | Some modern scholars challenge the prevailing view, that first century Judaism was a religion of [[Legalism (theology)|legalistic works-righteousness]] that Paul opposed, suggesting what they call a [[New Perspective on Paul]]; [[James D. G. Dunn]], who coined this phrase, has proposed that Peter was the "bridge-man" (literally the "[[pontifex maximus]]") between the two other "prominent leading figures": Paul and [[James the Just]].<ref>''The Canon Debate'', McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 32, page 577, by James D. G. Dunn: "For ''Peter was probably in fact and effect the bridge-man'' (pontifex maximus!) ''who did more than any other to hold together the diversity of first-century Christianity.'' James the brother of Jesus and Paul, the two other most prominent leading figures in first-century Christianity, were too much identified with their respective "brands" of Christianity, at least in the eyes of Christians at the opposite ends of this particular spectrum. But Peter, as shown particularly by the Antioch episode in Gal 2, had both a care to hold firm to his Jewish heritage, which Paul lacked, and an openness to the demands of developing Christianity, which James lacked. John might have served as such a figure of the center holding together the extremes, but if the writings linked with his name are at all indicative of his own stance he was too much of an individualist to provide such a rallying point. Others could link the developing new religion more firmly to its founding events and to Jesus himself. But none of them, including the rest of the twelve, seem to have played any role of continuing significance for the whole sweep of Christianity—though James the brother of John might have proved an exception had he been spared." [Italics original]</ref>
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| - | ===Destruction of the Temple===
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| - | {{seealso|Schisms among the Jews|List of events in early Christianity}}
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| - | [[Supersessionism|Supersessionists]] see the [[Destruction of the Temple]] in 70 AD as symbolic of God's rejection of Judaism and initiation of the [[New Covenant]], see also [[Figs in the Bible]]. Orthodox Judaism on the other hand remains optimistic that their covenant with God is eternal (for example {{bibleverse||Gen|17:13|HE}}) despite numerous calamities, and that a [[Third Temple]] will be built on the [[Temple Mount]].
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| - | Historically, after the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] of 66-73 and the destruction of the Temple, two sects of Jews and Jewish [[proselytes]] remained, the [[Pharisees]], which developed into [[Rabbinic Judaism]], and [[Christianity|Christians]], both of which developed into distinct religions.
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| - | While it is commonly believed that Paul established a Gentile church, it took centuries for a complete break to be established, and in any case, gentiles had long been attracted to the Jewish scriptures, see [[proselytes]] and [[Godfearers]]. Certain events are perceived as pivotal in the growing rift between [[Judaism and Christianity|Christianity and Judaism]]. The first break may have been the [[Council of Jerusalem]] of around 50<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=222&letter=B&search=Baptism Jewish Encyclopedia: Baptism]: "According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), [[Baptism]], next to [[Circumcision in the Bible|circumcision]] and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a [[Conversion to Judaism|proselyte to Judaism]] (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems," 1898, p. 70). But as [[Circumcision controversy in early Christianity|circumcision was discarded by Christianity]], and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the [[Laying on of hands|imposition of hands]], which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. [[Anointing]] with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition."</ref>. Among other things, this council decreed male circumcision optional for gentile converts<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/65/ci/circumci.html Columbia Encyclopedia: Circumcision]: "The decision that Christians need not practice circumcision is recorded in {{bibleverse||Acts|15}}; there was never, however, a prohibition of circumcision, and it is practiced by [[Coptic Christians]]."</ref> whereas Rabbinic Judaism made their circumcision requirement even stricter<ref>"peri'ah", (Shab. xxx. 6)</ref>. During the [[First Jewish–Roman War]], the [[Sanhedrin]] was reconstituted in [[Yavne]] with the permission of the Romans. Commonly called the [[Council of Jamnia]], they added a new blessing to the Jewish liturgy, circa 85: the "birkat ha-minim"; which condemns "minim". Some interpret this word to refer specifically to Christianity; others interpret it as referring to Jewish sectarianism in general. It is probable that this condemnation included many groups, of which the Christians were but one. That some of the later [[Church fathers]] only recommended against [[synagogue]] attendance makes it improbable that an anti-Christian prayer was a common part of the synagogue liturgy. Jewish Christians continued to worship in synagogues for centuries. There is a paucity of evidence for Jewish persecution of "heretics" in general, or Christians in particular, in the period between 70 and 135.<ref>Wylen (1995). Pg 190.</ref><ref>Berard (2006). Pp 112-113.</ref><ref>Wright (1992). Pp 164-165.</ref> But, according to historian [[Paula Fredriksen]], it is likely that Jewish authorities would have persecuted any Jews preaching the restoration of God's kingdom, or the return of the messiah, following the disastrous war of 67-70, for fear of provoking renewed Roman wrath against sedition.<ref>Paula Fredriksen, ''Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews'', Paula Fredriksen, ''From Jesus to Christ''</ref>
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| - | [[Image:Nerva Fiscus Iudaicus coin.jpg|thumb|left|150px||By the end of the 1st century, Roman law recognized Christians as distinct from Jews, exempting them from a [[Fiscus Iudaicus|special tax on the Jews]] and denying them the Jewish religious freedoms that the tax allowed.]]
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| - | Jews who did not convert to Christianity and the growing Christian community gradually became more hostile toward each other{{Fact|date=July 2008}}, see also [[List of events in early Christianity]], [[Responsibility for the death of Jesus]], and [[Tarfon]]. Christianity established itself as a predominantly Gentile religion that spanned the Roman Empire and beyond, eventually leading to an attempt to create a unified [[Christendom]] during the period of the [[Seven Ecumenical Councils]].
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| - | ===Bar Kokhba Revolt ===
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| - | The [[Bar Kokhba Revolt]] (132 - 135) created a large rift between Judaism and [[Jewish Christians]]. [[Simon bar Kokhba]] was recognized as the [[Jewish Messiah]] by [[Rabbi Akiva]]. The Christians, believing Jesus to be their Messiah, rejected Bar Kokhba and refused to join the revolt. The revolution turned against the Jewish Christians and some were killed. The failure of the revolt had serious consequences. Jews and Jewish Christians were barred entry into Jerusalem, leaving the church in Jerusalem without a Jewish identity. Many historians believe this revolt was the most notable event in the split between Judaism and Christianity.<ref>Wylen (1995). Pp 190-192.</ref><ref>Hunt (2003). Pp 6-7.</ref>
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| - | ===Paul, Peter, James and the Gentiles===
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| - | According to ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', [[Pauline epistles|Paul's letters]] are rhetorically powerful and theologically profound, and, against his own wishes, his understanding of what he called "[[Good news (Christianity)|the good news]]" hastened the separation between the messianic sect and mainstream Judaism.<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280-290-3): ''Paul, St''</ref> Many scholars view his epistles as the foundation of [[Christian theology]].<ref>Paul is the "founder of Christian theology." p. 579. [[Will Durant|Durant, Will]]. Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972</ref><ref>Citing Paul as Christianity's founder goes back to the 19th-century [[Tübingen School]]. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11567b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Paul: Theology of St. Paul]: "According to them Paul was the creator of theology, the founder of the Church, the preacher of asceticism, the defender of the sacraments and of the ecclesiastical system, the opponent of the religion of love and liberty which Christ came to announce to the world."</ref> Paul's emphasis on the Law's insufficiency, the [[Rule of Faith|superiority of faith]], and the Gentile Christian's [[Antinomianism|freedom from the Law]] were decisive in the future development of the new religion.<ref name ="Harris">[[Stephen L Harris|Harris, Stephen L.]], Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> (See also [[Pauline Christianity]].)
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| - | The [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]], generally considered to have been authored by Paul, identifies Jesus as establishing a [[New Covenant]] with his [[Body of Christ|flesh]] and [[Blood of Christ|blood]] ({{bibleverse|1|Cor|11:23-25}}), the bread and wine of the [[Eucharist]]. The ''New Covenant'' also appears in {{bibleverse||Luke|22:20}} though not in all copies<ref>[[Bruce M. Metzger]]'s ''Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament''</ref> and is primarily discussed in the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] which is generally considered anonymous. The previous covenant was that of Moses, called the [[Mosaic Covenant]] (see also [[Biblical law in Christianity]] and [[Supersessionism]]).
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| - | ===Jewish and Christian Scripture===
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| - | {{seealso|Development of the Jewish Bible canon|Development of the Christian Biblical canon}}
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| - | The first Christians used the same scriptures and religious writings as the Jews. The [[rabbis]], however, rejected the Septuagint translation<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1035&letter=B#3078 Jewish Encyclopedia: Bible Translations: Aquila]: "Two things, however, rendered the Septuagint unwelcome in the long run to the Jews. Its divergence from the accepted text (afterward called the [[Masoretic]]) was too evident; and it therefore could not serve as a basis for theological discussion or for [[homiletic]] interpretation. This distrust was accentuated by the fact that it had been adopted as Sacred Scripture by the new faith. A revision in the sense of the canonical Jewish text was necessary. This revision was made by a [[proselyte]], [[Aquila of Sinope|Aquila]], who lived during the reign of [[Hadrian]] (117-138)"</ref>, which included the books that some Christians (Catholics) now designate as [[deuterocanonical books]] and others (Protestants) as [[biblical apocrypha]].
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| - | Perhaps as early as the early second century, some Christians (notably [[Justin Martyr]]) began to accept early Christian texts as additional scripture. By the first century, Paul's letters and the separate Gospels were circulating among Christian communities. In the second century, the last books of the New Testament were written, Paul's letters were referred to as scripture, the four canonical Gospels were asserted by [[Irenaeus]]<ref>McDonald & Sanders, ''The Canon Debate'', 2002, page 280: The success of Tatian's [[Diatessaron]] is "...a powerful indication that the fourfold Gospel contemporaneously sponsored by Irenaeus was not broadly, let alone universally, recognized."</ref>, and other epistles were also accepted as canon. By 325, the Church had roughly the same New Testament in use in the East and West, but the details were still disputed, see [[Antilegomena]].
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| - | ===Judaizers===
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| - | Christian groups such as [[Ebionites]] that insisted on [[Circumcision controversy in early Christianity|circumcision]] and other aspects of Jewish law were increasingly disparaged as [[Judaizers]], especially after the 3rd century.
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| - | === Rejection of Judaism ===
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| - | Some early Christian groups went further than others in distancing themselves from Judaism and [[Judaizers]]. [[Marcion]] (d. 160) rejected the ''Old Testament'' altogether, saying that its God of Law had nothing to do with Jesus Christ's God of Love.<ref>"Marcion." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Gnostic groups, though they generally did not reject the ''Old Testament'', also commonly identified the Old Testament's God as the [[Demiurge]] (see also [[Dualism]]), the evil or lesser god of the material world (as contrasted with the superiority of the spiritual world).
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| - | ==Beliefs==
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| - | Early Christian beliefs were based on the [[Twelve Apostles|apostolic]] preaching (''[[kerygma]]''), considered to be preserved in [[Sacred Tradition|tradition]] and, according as was produced, in [[New Testament]] scripture.<ref>In recent centuries some have posited for parts of the New Testament [[New Testament#Date of composition|dates]] as late as the third century, early Christians attributed it to the Apostles themselves and their contemporaries (such as Mark and Luke).</ref>
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| - | ===Christology===
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| - | ====Divinity of Christ====
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| - | [[Divinity of Christ]]
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| - | Most Christians identified Jesus as divine from a very early period, although holding a variety of competing views as to what exactly this implied.<ref>Larry Hurtado, ''Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity'', (Eerdmans, 2005), page 650.</ref> Early Christian views tended to see Jesus as a unique agent of God;<ref>Larry Hurtado, ''Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity'', (Eerdmans, 2005), page 204.</ref> by the Council of Nicaea in 325 he was identified as God in the fullest sense,<!-- same being as God? or leave out "in the fullest sense? /!--> <!-- yes, exactly that, same being, that's the word in the Nicene Creed "homoousious"-->literally 'of the same substance, essence or being', hence in the further wording of the Creed, "Θεόν αληθινόν εκ Θεού αληθινού" ''Theón alēthinón ek Theoú alēthinoú'' 'true God from true God'.
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| - | The first and second-century texts that would later be canonized as the New Testament several times imply or directly refer to Jesus' divinity, though there is scholarly debate as to whether or not they call him God<ref>See [[Raymond E. Brown]]'s "Does the New Testament call Jesus God?" in ''Theological Studies'', #26, 1965, p. 545-73 for a good summary of the debate.</ref> Within 20–30 years of the death of Jesus, Paul, who authored the largest early expositions of Christian theology, refers to Jesus as the resurrected "[[Son of God]]", the savior who would [[Second Coming|return from heaven]] and save his faithful, dead and living, from the imminent [[End times|destruction of the world]]. The [[Synoptic Gospels]] describe him as the "Son of God", though the phrase "[[Son of Man]]" is more frequently used in the [[Gospel of Mark]]; born of the [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Virgin Mary]] by the agency of the [[Holy Spirit]], and who will return to [[Last judgment|judge the nations]]. The [[Gospel of John]] identifies Jesus as the human incarnation of the divine Word or "Logos" (see [[Jesus the Logos]]) and True Vine. The [[Book of Revelation]] depicts Jesus as the "[[Alpha and Omega]], the first and the last" who is to come soon<ref>{{bibleverse||Revelation|1:11}}</ref>, who died and now lives forever and who holds the keys of death and [[Hades]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Revelation|1:18}}</ref> The book has many other images, in particular that of a fearsome beast whose worshippers and those who receive its mark "will drink the wine of God's wrath, poured full strength into the cup of his anger, and will be tormented with fire and sulfur in the presence of the holy angels and in the presence of the Lamb" ({{bibleverse||Revelation|14:9-11}}), an effect not attributed to the Lamb itself. The book speaks of those who had been beheaded for the testimony of Jesus and for the word of God as reigning with him for a thousand years<ref>{{bibleverse||Revelation|20:4-6}}</ref> before the final defeat of Satan<ref>{{bibleverse||Revelation|20:7-10}}</ref> and the Judgement at the [[Great White Throne]].<ref>{{bibleverse||Revelation|20:11-14}}</ref> The [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] describes Jesus as the mediator of the [[New Covenant]].
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| - | The term "Logos" was used in Greek philosophy (see [[Heraclitus]]) and in [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenistic Jewish]] religious writing (see [[Philo Judaeus|Philo Judaeus of Alexandria]]) to mean the ultimate ordering principle of the universe. Those who rejected the identification of Jesus with the Logos, rejecting also the Gospel of John, were called [[Alogi]] (see also [[Monarchianism]]).<ref>"[http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/alogi.php Alogi or Alogoi]", [http://earlychurch.org.uk Early Church.org.uk].</ref><ref> "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01331b.htm Alogi]", Francis P. Havey, ''[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]] Volume I'', 1907.</ref>
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| - | [[Adoptionists]], such as the Ebionites, considered him as at first an ordinary man, born to Joseph and Mary, who later became the Son of God at his [[Baptism of Jesus|baptism]], his [[Transfiguration of Jesus|transfiguration]], or his [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]].
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| - | ====Trinity====
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| - | [[Trinitarianism]]
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| - | The Trinity is a post-New Testament doctrine.<ref name="Harris"/> However, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are associated in various New Testament passages.<ref>''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', "Trinity".</ref> The [[Great Commission]] of {{bibleverse||Matthew|28:19}} possibly reflects the baptismal practice at Matthew's time. Baptism has been in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost since the end of the first century.<ref name="Cross, F. L. 2005">Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Baptism''</ref> {{bibleverse||Acts|2:38}} speaks of baptism "in the name of Jesus Christ", which [[Jesus' Name doctrine|some interpret as another method of baptism]], while others do not, since "in the name of" is used elsewhere in Acts to mean not a form of words but "by the authority of", "for the sake of".<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|2:38}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|3:6}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|4:18}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|5:40}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|9:27-28}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|16:18}}; cf. "The phrase 'baptized in the name of Jesus' is simply Luke's way to distinguish Christian baptism from other baptisms of the period, such as John's baptism (which Luke mentions in Acts 1:5, 22, 10:37, 11:16, 13:24, 18:25, 19:4), [[Mikvah|Jewish proselyte baptism]], and the baptisms of pagan cults (such as Mithraism)" ([http://www.catholic.com/library/Trinitarian_Baptism.asp Trinitarian Baptism]); "baptism is differentiated elsewhere in narratives by being described as 'in the name of Jesus,' as opposed to the 'baptism of John' and so forth" ([http://www.acts17-11.com/dialogs_jesus_only.html Jesus Name Baptism?]).</ref> Aside from this verse, Matthew does not equate Jesus with God nor does he specify inequality either, though he indicates a special relationship between them.<ref>''The Oxford Companion of the Bible'', "Trinity".</ref> One of the elements virtually universal among diverse early Christians was the understanding that Jesus the Son was uniquely united with [[God the Father]].<ref>''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.ii.iii.ii.html History of Dogma]'' II.III.2, [[Adolf von Harnack]]. 'Jesus Christ, who is the Saviour. . . sent by God "in these last days," and who stands with God himself in a union special and unique.'</ref>
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| - | According to the [[Eastern Orthodox]] tradition, the Trinity was revealed to the disciples by revelation and in religious visions called [[theoria]]<ref>"[http://www.orthodoxfaith.com/spirituality_difference.html The Difference Between Orthodox Spirituality and Other Confessions]", [[Metropolitan Hierotheos Vlachos]], [[OrthodoxFaith.com]] 2003. "Thus the disciples of Christ acquired the knowledge of the Triune God in theoria (vision of God) and by revelation. It was revealed to them that God is one essence in three hypostases."</ref> during the [[Epiphany (Christian)#Eastern Christian Churches|Theophany]] and the [[Transfiguration of Jesus]] called the [[Tabor Light]] or uncreated light.
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| - | The close of the early Christian era is defined as the First Council of Nicea, which gave the trinity its dogmatic form. But the term ''trinity'' (coined by [[Tertullian]]) and concepts related to the trinity existed earlier in the church. The phrase "Father, Son, and Holy Spirit" became common, especially at baptism. Another trinitarian formula, "Glory to the Father, through the Son, in the Holy Spirit," was common even before the [[Arian controversy]]. However, this earlier formula does not express the co-equality of the three persons.<ref>"[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15047a.htm#III The Blessed Trinity]", G.H.Joyce, ''[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' Volume XV, 1912.</ref>
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| - | The Council used the Greek term ''[[homoousian|homoousios]]'' (literally "of the same substance, essence or being") to express its view of the relation of the [[God the Son|Son]] to the [[God the Father|Father]]. However, it also appears in the early Christian era<ref>The first two writers listed are mentioned in [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07449a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Homoousion] as applying the word precisely to the relation between Christ and the Father.</ref> as used by [[Origen]], [[Paul of Samosata]], and [[Alexander of Alexandria]] though not without controversy, see for example [[Synods of Antioch]]. Various Christian writings refer to Jesus as a man and as God, but it was this Council that gave official sanction to the common Trinity formulation using this term.
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| - | Many, including [[Oneness Pentecostal]]s and some [[Restorationists]], styling themselves as restoring early Christian practice, reject the trinitarian concepts of the early church, and generally place no importance in the post-apostolic writings of the Church Fathers on the subject. (See below in the discussion on the [[Church Fathers]].)
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| - | ===Eschatology===
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| - | ====Kingdom of God====
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| - | The Apostles believed that Jesus would soon return to establish the [[Kingdom of Heaven]] on earth. The general term for this set of beliefs is [[parousia]] (or Second Coming).
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| - | Among early Christians there was a widely accepted belief that Christ's return would establish not the [[Resurrection of the Dead|general resurrection]] but a thousand-year kingdom, with the general resurrection following (a belief known as chiliasm or [[premillenialism]]).<ref>''[http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/About.htm History of the Christian Church]'' Vol. 2 p.381, [[Philip Schaff]], (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, n.d.): "The most striking point in the eschatology of the ante-Nicene age is the prominent chiliasm, or millenarianism, that is the belief of a visible reign of Christ in glory on earth with the risen saints for a thousand years, before the general resurrection and judgement. It was indeed not the doctrine of the church embodied in any creed or form of devotion, but a widely current opinion of distinguished teachers, such as Barnabas, Papias, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Methodius, and Lactantius, while Caius, Origen, Dionysius the Great, Eusebius (as afterwards Jerome and Augustin) opposed it."</ref> Chapter 20 of the [[Book of Revelation]] is the main source of this teaching, though it may owe something to the [[Book of Daniel]] and to ideas popular in late pre-Christian Jewish apocalyptic literature, especially [[2 Esdras]] and the non-canonical [[Book of Enoch|Books of Enoch]]<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Millenarianism''</ref>
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| - | Early Christians followed the [[Pharisaic]] precedent<ref>Not all Jews believed in resurrection. The [[Sadducees]] rejected all scripture but the [[Torah]] and denied the resurrection as an innovation.</ref> of believing in a physical [[resurrection of the dead]]. They believed that the saved received various divine rewards corresponding to their holiness. While all the saved would gain eternal life in Christ, not all of the saved would live in heaven.{{Fact|date=February 2008}}
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| - | Apologists defended the resurrection of the dead against pagan philosophers, who considered the soul worthy of perfection but not the body. Origen, however, who attempted to synthesise [[Platonism]] and Christianity, appears to have supported the idea of an ethereal rather than corporeal resurrection.<ref>Catharine P. Roth, Introduction, ''On the Soul and the Resurrection: St Gregory of Nyssa'', St Vladimir's Seminary Press (1993), page 14.</ref>
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| - | ====Cosmology====
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| - | The ancient Jewish picture was of the sky as a firmament, a dome covering the earth. But the prevailing picture in early Christian times was that of the earth as a sphere with one or more other spheres, containing the stars, rotating around it. They sometimes described the souls of the dead waiting underground for the general resurrection. They described [[gehenna]] (roughly, hell) as a subterranean fire, see also [[Lake of Fire]]. In some Hellenic traditions, influential in the Alexandrian church, souls escaped the material world of the earth and returned to the spirit realm above.
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| - | ====Prayer for the dead====
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| - | {{seealso|Prayer for the dead}}
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| - | The Encyclopaedia Britannica states: "The well-attested early Christian practice of prayer for the dead ... was encouraged by the episode (rejected by Protestants as apocryphal) in which [[Judas Maccabeus]] (Jewish leader of the revolt against the tyrant [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]]) makes atonement for the idolatry of his fallen soldiers by providing prayers and a monetary sin offering on their behalf ({{bibleverse|2|Maccabees|12:41–46}}); by the Apostle [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]]'s prayer for [[Onesiphorus]] ({{bibleverse|2|Timothy|1:18}}); and by the implication in {{bibleverse||Matthew|12:32}} that there may be forgiveness of sins in the world to come."<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9061946/purgatory Encyclopaedia Britannica: Purgatory]</ref>
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| - | That early Christians prayed for the dead, believing that the dead were thereby benefitted, is attested since at least the second-century [[inscription of Abercius]],<ref>For the text of the inscription see [http://books.google.com/books?id=O7-JANm7mZkC&pg=PA170&dq=Bishop+Abercius%27+tombstone Daily Life of Christians in Ancient Rome, p. 170]</ref> and celebration of the [[Eucharist]] for the dead is attested since at least the third century.<ref>Gerald O' Collins and Mario Farrugia, ''Catholicism: the Story of Catholic Christianity'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003) p. 36; George Cross, "The Differentiation of the Roman and Greek Catholic Views of the Future Life", in ''The Biblical World'' (1912) p. 106; cf. ''Pastor'' I, iii. 7, also Ambrose, ''De Excessu fratris Satyri'' 80</ref> Specific examples of belief in the communion of the living with the dead through prayer are found in many of the [[Church Fathers]]<ref>Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, ''A Concise Dictionary of Theology'' (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27.</ref>
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| - | ====Hades====
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| - | The Greek word "[[Hades#Hades in Christianity|Hades]]", which, like the Hebrew word "[[sheol]]", is generally used of the abode where the dead are reckoned to be, appears several times in the New Testament.<ref>Henry Clarence Thiessen, ''Lectures in Systematic Theology'', Eerdmans (1979), page 381.</ref> In the parable of the rich man and poor Lazarus ({{bibleverse||Luke|16:19-31}}), the dead rich man "in Hades" ({{bibleverse-nb||Luke|16:23}}), speaks of being "tormented in this flame" ({{bibleverse-nb||Luke|16:24}}), and is said to be separated by a "great gulf" from Abraham ({{bibleverse-nb||Luke|16:26}}), in whose [[bosom of Abraham|bosom]] Lazarus is said to be placed ({{bibleverse-nb||Luke|16:22}}). The word "Hades" was used in {{bibleverse||Acts|2:27-31}} (as in the [[Septuagint]]) to translate the word "sheol" of the Hebrew text of the Psalm there quoted.
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| - | Early Church Fathers who wrote in Greek, such as [[Hippolytus of Rome]] in his [[Josephus's Discourse to the Greeks concerning Hades|book on Hades]], continued to use the term "Hades".<ref>''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf05.iii.iv.ii.iii.html Against Plato, on the Cause of the Universe]''.</ref> Early Christian writers in [[Latin]] also used either the Greek word "Hades" itself<ref>For instance, [[Tertullian]] in [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0310.htm ''De anima''], chapter 7.</ref> or employed as its equivalent the Latin word "infernus", the Roman word for the [[underworld]],<ref>For instance, the Latin translation of Origen's ''De Principiis'' by Rufinus [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.vi.v.v.i.html Book IV, chapter I]</ref> as [[Jerome]] did in his translation of the New Testament.<ref>"In Latin, St Jerome translated Hades as infernus, the Roman name for the underworld and thus an exact cognate" ([http://www.earlychristianhistory.net/hell.html Christian History]</ref><!--Source needed (end).-->
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| - | ====Angels and Satan====
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| - | Early Christians understood [[angels]] to be active in supporting the church and [[Satan]] to be actively opposed to it. [[Hippolytus]], for example, recounts angels physically scourging the first [[antipope]] to force him to repent.<ref>''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.x.xxix.html Church History]'' 5.28.7-12, [[Eusebius]].</ref><ref> "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10448a.htm Monarchians]", [[John Chapman]], ''[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' Volume X, 1911.</ref> Christian writers commonly saw Satan (or [[Beelzebub]], see [[Mark 3]]) as the author of heresies. In {{bibleverse||John|8:44}}, Satan, rather than [[Abraham]], is named as the father of those Jews who rejected Jesus. See also [[Rejection of Jesus]].
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| - | The word "angel" is derived from Greek ''{{polytonic|ἄγγελος}}'', the basic meaning of which is "messenger". Visitations from the "angel of the LORD" in the Old Testament are taken by many to be pre-Incarnation manifestations of Christ.<ref>"[http://www.gotquestions.org/angel-of-the-Lord.html Who is the angel of the Lord?]", gotQuestions?.org.</ref><ref> "[http://www.ldolphin.org/angelL.html An Angel You Ought to Know]", Loren Jacobs, [[Jews for Jesus]].</ref><ref> "[http://biblicalstudies.qldwide.net.au/angel_of_the_lord.html The Angel of the Lord: Who Is He?]", Biblical Artefacts And Studies.</ref> Accordingly, Justin Martyr spoke of Christ as "King, and Priest, and God, and Lord, and ''angel'', and man, and captain, and stone, and a Son born, and first made subject to suffering, then returning to heaven, and again coming with glory, and He is preached as having the everlasting kingdom".<ref>''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/01282.htm Dialogue with Trypho]'' 34, [[Justin Martyr]].</ref> He interpreted as Christ the [[Angel of the Lord|Angel]] who spoke with Abraham in {{bibleverse||Genesis|18}}, and argued for the divinity of Christ.<ref>For a detailed study of the significance Justin saw in the title of "Angel" given to the Messiah in the [[Septuagint]] version of Isaiah 9:6, the then most widely known version of that text, see "[http://www.forananswer.org/Top_JW/angel_juncker.pdf Christ As Angel: The Reclamation Of A Primitive Title]", [[Günther Juncker]], ''[[Trinity Journal]]'' 15:2 (Fall 1994): 221–250.</ref>
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| - | ==Orthodoxy and heterodoxy==
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| - | Traditionally, [[orthodoxy]] and [[heresy]] have been viewed in relation to the "orthodoxy" as an authentic lineage of tradition. Other forms of Christianity were viewed as deviant streams of thought and therefore "[[heterodox]]", or heretical. This view was dominant until the publication of [[Walter Bauer]]'s ''Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum'' ("Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity") in 1934. Bauer endeavored to rethink early Christianity historically, independent from the views of the church. He stated that the early church was very diverse and included many "heretical" groups that had an equal claim to apostolic tradition. Bauer interpreted the struggle between the orthodox and heterodox to be the "mainstream" Roman church struggling to attain dominance. He presented Edessa and Egypt as places where the "orthodoxy" of Rome had little influence during the second century. As he saw it, the theological thought of the Orient at the time would later be labeled "heresy". The response by modern scholars has been mixed. Some scholars clearly support Bauer's conclusions and others express concerns about his possible bias. More moderate responses have become prominent and Bauer's theory is generally accepted.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} However, modern scholars have critiqued and updated Bauer's model.<ref>Hunt (2003). Pp 10-11.</ref>
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| - | ===Divisions===
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| - | Perhaps one of the most important discussions among scholars of early Christianity in the past century is to what extent it is appropriate to speak of "orthodoxy" and "heresy". [[Higher criticism]] drastically altered the previous perception that heresy was a very rare exception to the orthodoxy. Bauer was particularly influential in the reconsideration of the historical model. During the 1970s, increasing focus on the effect of social, political and economic circumstances on the formation of early Christianity occurred as Bauer's work found a wider audience. Some scholars argue against the increasing focus on heresies. A movement away from presuming the correctness or dominance of the orthodoxy is seen as understandable, in light of modern approaches. However, they feel that instead of an even and neutral approach to historical analysis that the heterodox sects are given an assumption of superiority over the orthodox movement. The current debate is vigorous and broad. While it is difficult to summarize all current views, general statements may be made, remembering that such broad strokes will have exceptions in specific cases.<ref>Esler (2004). Pp 893-894.</ref>
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| - | ====Adoptionism====
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| - | [[Adoptionism]]
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| - | One conception about Jesus that was found among second and third-century Christians was that which [[Adolf von Harnack]] called "Adoption Christology": Jesus was regarded as "the man whom God hath chosen, in whom the Deity or the Spirit of God dwelt, and who, after being tested, was adopted by God and invested with dominion".<ref>''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.ii.iii.iii.html History of Dogma II.III.3]''</ref> This stream in early Greek theology regarded Christ as a man gifted with divine powers. First represented by the [[Ebionites]], it was later developed by the [[monarchianism|Monarchians]], such as [[Theodotus of Byzantium]] and [[Paul of Samosata]].<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Adoptianism''</ref> It conflicted with the tradition, as in the Gospel of John, that Jesus is the eternal [[Logos]], hence the term ''[[Alogi]]''.
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| - | ====Arianism====
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| - | [[Arianism]]
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| - | Arianism was the principal [[heresy]] which denied the full divinity of Jesus Christ, and is so called after its leader [[Arius]].<ref name="ODCC:Arianism">Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3): article ''Arianism''</ref> It has been called the most challenging heresy in the history of the Church. <ref name="CC"/>
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| - | Arius, born probably in [[Ancient Libya|Libya]] between c. 260 and 280, was ordained a priest in [[Alexandria]] in 312-313. Under [[Pope Alexander of Alexandria|Bishop Alexander]] (313-326), probably in about 319, he came forward as a champion of [[subordinationism|subordinationist]] teaching about the person of Christ.<ref name="ODCC:Arius">Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3): article ''Arius''</ref>
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| - | Arius appears to have held that the Son of God was not eternal but created by the Father as an instrument for creating the world and therefore not God by nature, different from other creatures in being the one direct creation of God.<ref name="ODCC:Arianism"/> The controversy quickly spread, with Arius seeking support from other disciples of his teacher [[Lucian of Antioch]], notably [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]], while a synod under Alexander excommunicated Arius.<ref name="ODCC:Arius"/> Because of the agitation aroused by the dispute, <ref name="ODCC:Arianism"/> Emperor [[Constantine I]] sent [[Hosius of Córdoba]] to Alexandria to attempt a settlement; but the mission failed.<ref name="ODCC:Arius"/> Accordingly, in 325, Constantine convened the [[First Council of Nicaea]], which, largely through the influence of [[Athanasius of Alexandria]], then a [[deacon]], but destined to be Alexander's successor, defined the Catholic faith in the coeternity and coequality of the Father and the Son, using the famous term "[[homoousios]]" to express the oneness of their being, while Arius and some bishops who supported him, including Eusebius, were banished.<ref name="ODCC:Arianism"/>
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| - | This council marks the end of the ''Early Christian'' period and the beginning of the period of the [[First seven Ecumenical Councils]].
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| - | ====Ebionites====
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| - | [[Ebionites]]
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| - | The Ebionites ("poor ones") were a sect of Jewish Christians who flourished in the early centuries of Christianity, especially east of the [[Jordan River|Jordan]]. They emphasized the binding character of the Mosaic Law and believed Jesus was the human son of Joseph and Mary. They seem to have been ascetics, and are said to have rejected Paul's epistles and to have used only one [[Gospel of the Ebionites|Gospel]].<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Ebionites''</ref>
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| - | ====Gnosticism====
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| - | [[Gnosticism|Valentinius]]
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| - | Early in the common era, several distinct religious sects, some of them Christian, adhered to an array of beliefs that would later be termed [[Gnostic]]. The most successful Christian Gnostic was the priest [[Valentinus (Gnostic)|Valentinus]] (c. 100 - c. 160), who founded a Gnostic church in Rome and developed an elaborate cosmology. Gnostics considered the material world to be a prison created by a fallen or evil spirit, the god of the material world (called the [[demiurge]]). Gnostics identified the God of the Hebrew Bible as this demiurge. Secret knowledge (gnosis) was said to liberate one's soul to return to the true God in the realm of light. Valentinus and other Christian gnostics identified Jesus as the Savior, a spirit sent from the true God into the material world to liberate the souls trapped there.
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| - | While there appear to be Gnostic elements in some early Christian writing, [[Irenaeus]] and others condemned Gnosticism as a heresy, rejecting its dualistic cosmology and vilification of the material world and the creator of that world. Gnostics thought the God of the Old Testament was not the true God. It was considered to be the [[demiurge]] and either fallen, as taught by [[Valentinus (Gnostic)|Valentinus]] (c. 100 - c. 160) or evil, as taught by the [[Sethian]]s and [[Ophites]].
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| - | The [[Gospel of John]], according to [[Stephen L Harris]], both includes Gnostic elements and refutes Gnostic beliefs, presenting a dualistic universe of light and dark, spirit and matter, good and evil, much like the Gnostic accounts, but instead of escaping the material world, Jesus bridges the spiritual and physical worlds.<ref>''Understanding the Bible'', [[Stephen L Harris]]. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</ref> [[Raymond E. Brown]] wrote that even though gnostics interpreted John to support their doctrines, the author didn't intend that. The [[Johannine epistles]] were written (whether by the author of the Gospel or someone in his circle) to argue against gnostic doctrines.<ref>''The Community of the Beloved Disciple'', [[Raymond E. Brown]], Paulist Press. (French translation: ''La communauté du disciple bien-aimé'' Les Éditions du Cerf, Paris 1983 ISBN 2-204-02000-1), pp. 117-134</ref>
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| - | The [[Gospel of Thomas]] has some Gnostic elements but lacks the full Gnostic cosmology. The scene in John in which "[[doubting Thomas]]" ascertains that the resurrected Jesus is physical refutes the Gnostic idea that Jesus returned to spirit form after death. The written gospel draws on an earlier oral tradition associated with Thomas. Some scholars argue that the Gospel of John was meant to oppose the beliefs of that community.<ref>''Beyond Belief'',[[Elaine Pagels]], 2003.</ref>
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| - | Some believe{{Fact|date=August 2007}} that there were at least three distinct divisions within the Christian movement of the 1st century: the Jewish Christians (led by the Apostle James the Just, with Jesus's disciples, and their followers), [[Pauline Christianity|Pauline Christians]] (followers of Paul of Tarsus) and Gnostic Christians.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Others believe that Gnostic Christianity was a later development, some time around the middle or late second century, around the time of Valentinus.<ref>''No Longer Jews: The Search for Gnostic Origins'', Carl B. Smith, Hendrickson Publishers (September 2004). ISBN 978-1565639447</ref> Gnosticism was in turn made up of many smaller groups, some of which did not claim any connection to Jesus Christ. In [[Mandaeism|Mandaeist]] Gnosticism, Mandaeans maintain that [[Jesus]] was a '''mšiha kdaba''' or "[[false messiah]]" who perverted the teachings entrusted to him by John the Baptist. The word '''k(a)daba''', however, derives from two roots in Mandaic: the first root, meaning "to lie," is the one traditionally ascribed to Jesus; the second, meaning "to write," might provide a second meaning, that of "book;" hence some Mandaeans, motivated perhaps by an ecumenical spirit, maintain that Jesus was not a "lying Messiah" but a "Book Messiah", the "book" in question presumably being the Christian Gospels. This however seems to be a folk etymology without support in the Mandaean texts.<ref name="Jesus">{{cite book
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| - | | last = Macuch
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| - | | first = Rudolf
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| - | | year = 1965
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| - | | title = Handbook of Classical and Modern Mandaic
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| - | | publisher = De Gruyter & Co.
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| - | | location = Berlin
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| - | | pages = 61 fn. 105}}</ref>
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| - | A modern view has argued that [[Marcionism]] is mistakenly reckoned among the Gnostics, and really represents a fourth interpretation of the significance of Jesus.<ref>"[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/MAL_MAR/MARCION.html MARCION]", ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' 1911 ed., Volume VI7, p. 693.</ref> Gnostics freely exchanged concepts and texts. It is considered likely that Valentinius was influenced by previous concepts such as Sophia, as much as he influenced others.
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| - | ====Marcionism====
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| - | [[Marcion|Marcionism]]
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| - | In 144, the Church in Rome expelled [[Marcion of Sinope]]. He thereupon set up his own separate ecclesiastical organization, later called Marcionism. Like the Gnostics, he promoted [[dualism]]. Unlike the Gnostics, however, he founded his beliefs not on secret knowledge (gnosis) but on the vast difference between what he saw as the "evil" deity of the ''Old Testament'' and the God of love of the ''New Testament'', on which he expounded in his ''Antithesis''. Consequently, Marcionists were vehemently [[anti-Judaism]] in their beliefs. They rejected the Jewish-Christian [[Gospel according to the Hebrews]] (see also [[Jewish-Christian Gospels]]) and all the other [[Gospels]] with the single exception of the [[Gospel of Marcion]], which appears to be a shorter version of the [[Gospel of Luke]].
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| - | From the perspectives of Tertullian and Epiphanius (when the four gospels had largely canonical status, perhaps in reaction to the challenge created by Marcion), it appeared that Marcion rejected the non-Lukan gospels, however, in Marcion's time, it may be that the only gospel he was familiar with from Pontus was the gospel that would later be called Luke. It is also possible that Marcion's gospel was actually modified by his critics to become the gospel we know today as Luke, rather than the story from his critics that he changed a canonical gospel to get his version. For example: compare {{bibleverse||Luke|5:39}} to {{bibleverse-nb||Luke|5:36-38}}; did Marcion delete 5:39 from his Gospel or was it added later to counteract a Marcionist interpretation of 5:36-38? See also [[New Wine into Old Wineskins]]. One must keep in mind that we only know of Marcion through his critics and they considered him a major threat to the form of Christianity that they knew. John Knox (the modern writer, not to be confused with [[John Knox]] the Protestant Reformer) in ''Marcion and the New Testament: An Essay in the Early History of the Canon'' (ISBN 0-404-16183-9) was the first to propose that Marcion's Gospel may have preceded [[Luke-Acts|Luke's Gospel and Acts]].<ref>"[http://ontruth.com/marcion.html Marcion and Marcionite Gnosticism]", Cky J. Carrigan, Ph.D., On Truth, November 1996.</ref>
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| - | Marcion argued that Christianity should be solely based on [[Christian Love]]. He went so far as to say that Jesus’ mission was to overthrow [[Demiurge]] -- the fickle, cruel, despotic God of the Old Testament—and replace Him with the Supreme God of Love whom Jesus came to reveal. Marcion was labeled a gnostic by [[Irenaeus]]. Irenaeus' labeled Marcion this because of Marcion expressing this core gnostic belief, that the creator God of the Jews and the Old Testament was the [[demiurge]]. This position, he said, was supported by the ten Epistles of Paul that Marcion also accepted. His writing had a profound effect upon the development of Christianity and the canon.<ref>Metzger, Bruce. ''Canon of the NT'' ISBN 978-0-19-826180-3; The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] of 1913 characterized Marcion as "perhaps the most dangerous foe Christianity has ever known."; [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/origin_nt.v.vi.html Harnack's Origin of the New Testament]: "Marcion, on the contrary, treats the Catholic Church as one that “follows the Testament of the Creator-God,” and directs the full force of his attack against this Testament and against the falsification of the Gospel and of the Pauline Epistles by the original Apostles and the writers of the Gospels. He would necessarily have dealt with the two Testaments of the Catholic Church if the Church had already possessed a New Testament. His polemic would necessarily have been much less simple if he had been opposed to a Church which, by possessing a New Testament side by side with the Old Testament, had ipso facto placed the latter under the shelter of the former. In fact Marcion’s position towards the Catholic Church is intelligible, in the full force of its simplicity, only under the supposition that the Church had not yet in her hand any “litera scripta Novi Testamenti.”"</ref>
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| - |
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| - | ====Montanism====
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| - | [[Montanism]]
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| - | About 156, Montanus launched a ministry of prophecy, criticizing Christians as increasingly worldly and bishops as increasingly autocratic. Traveling in his native [[Anatolia]], he and two women preached a return to primitive Christian simplicity, prophecy, celibacy, and asceticism.<ref name="CC"/>
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| - | Tertullian, having grown puritanical with age, embraced Montanism as a more outright application of Christ's teaching.<ref name="CC"/> Montanus's followers revered him as the [[Paraclete]] that Christ had promised, and he led his sect out into a field to meet the [[New Jerusalem]].<ref name="CC"/> His sect spread across the Roman Empire, survived persecution, and relished martyrdom.<ref name="CC"/> The Church banned them as a heresy, and in the 6th century Justinian ordered the sect's extinction.<ref name="CC"/>
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| - |
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| - | The sect's ecstasy, [[speaking in tongues]], and other details are similar to those found in [[Pentecostalism]].
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| - |
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| - | ==Religious writing==
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| - | {{seealso|List of early Christian writers|List of early Christian texts of disputed authorship}}
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| - | Early Christians wrote many religious works, some of which were later canonized as the New Testament of today.
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| - | ===Oral tradition and first written works===
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| - |
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| - | {{seealso|Logia}}
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| - | Christian testimony was entirely oral for roughly twenty years after Jesus' death. Christians passed along Jesus' teachings, proclaimed his resurrection, and prophesied his imminent return. Apostles established churches and oral traditions in various places, such as Jerusalem, Antioch, Caesarea, and Ephesus. These traditions gradually developed distinct characteristics.
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| - |
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| - | When those who had heard Jesus' actual words began to die, Christians started recording the sayings in writing. The hypothetical [[Q document]], a collection of Jesus' sayings, is perhaps the first such record (''c'' 50).
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| - |
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| - | ===Paul's epistles===
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| - | {{seealso|Pauline epistles}}
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| - |
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| - | At about the same time, Paul of Tarsus also began writing (or dictating<ref>It may be that he employed an [[amanuensis]], only occasionally writing himself, for example see {{bibleref|Galatians|6:11}}, {{bibleref|Romans|16:22}}, {{bibleref|1Corinthians|16:21}}, {{bibleref|Colossians|4:18}}, {{bibleref|2Thessalonians|3:17}}, {{bibleref|Philemon|1:19}}. [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot]] in his ''Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians'' writes: "At this point [{{bibleverse||Gal|6:11}}] the Apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name ({{bibleverse|2|Thess|2:2}}; {{bibleverse-nb|2|Thess|3:17}}) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries… In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."</ref>) letters ("epistles") to various churches that would later be considered scripture. Some scholars think Paul articulated the first Christian theology: namely that all people inherit Adam's guilt (see [[Original Sin]]) and can only be saved from death by the [[Atonement|atoning death]] of the Son of God, Jesus' crucifixion.
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| - |
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| - | ===Gospels and Acts===
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| - | {{seealso|Gospel|Acts of the Apostles (genre)}}
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| - |
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| - | The gospel of Mark was written during c. 65-70, possibly motivated by the [[First Jewish-Roman War]]. The gospel of Matthew was written c. 80-85 to convince a Jewish audience that Jesus was the expected Messiah (Christ) and a greater Moses. The gospel of Luke, together with Acts (see [[Luke-Acts]]) was c. 85-90, considered the most literate and artistic of the gospels. Finally, the gospel of John was written, portraying Jesus as the incarnation of the divine [[Logos|Word]], who primarily taught about himself as a savior. All four gospels originally circulated anonymously, and they were attributed to Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John in the 2nd century. Various authors wrote further epistles and the Apocalypse of John.<ref>[[Stephen L Harris|Harris]] (1985). Pp 263-268.</ref>
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| - |
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| - | ===Later epistles===
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| - | {{seealso|General epistles}}
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| - | Epistles by other hands than Paul's circulated in the early church. Many of them, including one written as late as ''c'' 150,<ref name="Harris"/> were eventually included in the New Testament canon. Many later epistles concern issues of church leadership, discipline, and disputes.
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| - |
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| - | ===Revelation===
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| - |
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| - | {{seealso|Apocalyptic literature}}
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| - | Several apocalypses circulated in the early church, and one of them, the [[Revelation of John]], was later included in the New Testament.
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| - |
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| - | ===Defining Scripture===
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| - | [[Development of the Christian Biblical canon]]
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| - |
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| - | Debates about scripture were underway in the mid-second century, concurrent with a drastic increase of new scriptures, both Jewish and Christian. Debates regarding practice and belief gradually became reliant on the use of scripture. Similarly, in the third century a shift away from [[continuing revelation|direct revelation]] as a source of authority occurred. "Scripture" still had a broad meaning and usually referred to the [[Septuagint]]. Beyond the [[Torah]] (the ''Law'') and some of the earliest prophetic works (the [[Neviim|''Prophets'']]), there was no universal agreement to a [[Biblical canon|canon]], but it was not debated much at first. By the mid-second century, tensions arose with the [[List of events in early Christianity|growing rift]] between [[Christianity and Judaism]], which some theorize led eventually to the determination of a Jewish canon by the emerging [[Rabbinic Judaism|rabbinic movement]],<ref>White (2004). Pp 446-447.</ref> though, even as of today, there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Jewish canon was set, see [[Development of the Jewish Bible canon]] for details. Some scholars argue that the Jewish canon was fixed by the [[Hasmonean]] dynasty (140-37 BCE).<ref>Philip R. Davies in ''The Canon Debate'', page 50: "With many other scholars, I conclude that the fixing of a canonical list was almost certainly the achievement of the Hasmonean dynasty."</ref>
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| - |
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| - | Regardless, throughout the [[Jewish diaspora]] newer writings were still collected and the fluid Septuagint collection was the primary source of scripture for Christians. Many works under the names of known Apostles, such as the [[Gospel of Thomas]], were accorded scriptural status in at least some Christian circles. Apostolic writings, such as [[I Clement]] and the [[Epistle of Barnabas]], were considered scripture even within the orthodoxy through the fifth century. A problem for scholars is that there is a lack of direct evidence on when Christians began accepting their own scriptures alongside the Septuagint. Well into the second century Christians held onto a strong preference for [[oral tradition]] as clearly demonstrated by writers of the time, such as [[Papias]].<ref>White (2004). Pp 446-447.</ref>
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| - |
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| - | The acceptance of the Septuagint was generally uncontested (even the [[Peshitta]] appears to be influenced<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/swete/greekot/Page_112.html Swete's Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, page 112]</ref>). Later [[Jerome]] would express his preference for adhering strictly to the Jewish canon, but his view held little currency even in his own day. It was not until the [[Protestant Reformation]] that substantial numbers of Christians began to reject those books of the Septuagint which are not found in the Jewish canon, referring to them as [[Biblical apocrypha]]. In addition, some New Testament books were also disputed, see [[Antilegomena]].
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| - |
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| - | ===Fathers of the Church===
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| - | [[Church Fathers]]
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| - | From an early date the title "Father" was applied to [[bishop]]s as witnesses to the Christian tradition. Only later, from the end of the fourth century, was it used in a more restricted sense of a more or less clearly defined group of ecclesiasical authors of the past whose authority on doctrinal matters carried special weight. According to the commonly accepted teaching, the Fathers of the Church are those ancient writers, whether bishops or not, who were characterized by orthodoxy of doctrine, holiness of life and the approval of the Church. Sometimes [[Tertullian]], [[Origen]] and a few others of not unimpeachable orthodoxy are now classified as Fathers of the Church.<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Fathers of the Church''</ref>
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| - |
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| - | ====Apostolic Fathers====
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| - | [[Image:StClement1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|St. Clement I was an apostolic father.]]
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| - | {{seealso|Apostolic Fathers}}
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| - |
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| - | The earliest Christian writings (other than those collected in the New Testament) are a group of letters credited to the [[Apostolic Fathers]]. These include the [[Epistle of Barnabas]], the [[Shepherd of Hermas]] and the [[Epistles of Clement]], as well as the [[Didache]]. Taken as a whole, the collection is notable for its literary simplicity, religious zeal and lack of Hellenistic philosophy or rhetoric. Fathers such as [[Ignatius of Antioch]] (died 98 to 117) advocated the authority of the apostolic episcopacy (bishops)<ref>Ephesians 5-6, Magnesians 2, 6-7, 13, [[Letter to the Trallians|Trallians]] 2-3, [[Letter to the Smyrnaeans|Smyrnaeans]] 8-9</ref>.
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| - |
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| - | ====Post-apostolic fathers====
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| - | {{seealso|Ante-Nicene Fathers}}
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| - | Post-apostolic fathers defined and defended Christian doctrine. The [[Apologists]] became prominent in the second century. This includes such notable figures as [[Justin Martyr]] (d. 165), [[Tatian]] (d. c. 185), and [[Clement of Alexandria]] (c. 150-211/216). They debated with prevalent philosophers of their day, defending and arguing for Christianity. They focused mainly on monotheism and their harshest words were used for ancient mythologies.<ref>Richardson (1953). Pp 16-17.</ref> Fathers such as Irenaeus advocated the role of the [[apostolic succession]] of bishops in preserving apostolic teaching.
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| - |
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| - | ====Tradition====
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| - | The church fathers themselves were conscious of being a part of an ongoing tradition, and frequently appealed to earlier writers to defend their opinions. As the centuries passed, the result was a growing body of religious literature which was customarily used for devotional purposes and theological argumentation. It is these church fathers who form our most important sources for understanding the development of early Christianity, and their importance to their immediate successors explains their ongoing importance today. At the [[Protestant Reformation]], the Reformers frequently appealed to the church fathers in defense of their propositions, though they also showed a willingness to disagree with them. By contrast, the [[Restorationism|Restorationists]] later viewed the church fathers as entirely suspect, and appealed in support of their views either to supposed new revelations or else to the [[New Testament]] directly without reference to later Christianity.
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| - |
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| - | ===Rules and creeds===
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| - | The term ''[[Rule of Faith]]'' is used to describe outline statements of Christian belief that circulated in the second-century Church and were designed to make clear the essential contents of Christian faith, guide the understanding of scripture, and distinguish orthodox belief from heresy. While, unlike the creeds, which were later, they varied in wording, their identical essential content was held to have descended unchanged from the Apostles.<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Rule of Faith''</ref>
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| - |
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| - | Originally, candidates for baptism accepted a short formula of belief, which varied in detail from one place to another. "By the fourth century these formulas had become more uniform and were everywhere tripartite in structure, following {{bibleverse||Matthew|28:19}}".<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Creed''. The verse cited contains the tripartite formula "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit".</ref>
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| - |
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| - | The early Christian era ends with Emperor Constantine convening the Council of Nicaea, where the [[Nicene creed#The original Nicene Creed of 325|original version of the Nicene Creed]] was formulated.
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| - |
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| - | ==Practices==
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| - | From the writings of early Christians, historians have tried to piece together an understanding of various early Christian practices including worship services, customs and observances. Early Christian writers such as [[Justin Martyr]] (100 - 165) described these practices.
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| - |
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| - | ===Sacraments===
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| - | Rituals that would later be defined as sacraments existed in the early church.
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| - | ====Baptism====
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| - | [[Baptism]]
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| - | Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism were variable.<ref name ="ODWR">Bowker, John (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. New York: Oxford University Press. 1997</ref> In the most usual form of early Christian baptism, the candidate stood in water and water was poured over the upper body.<ref name="ODWR"/> In other words, it was immersion, not submersion.<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''submersion''</ref> Tertullian describes the rite as a triple immersion, preceded by a fast or vigil, a confession of sins, and renouncing the devil, and as followed by anointing, the imposition of hands, and a symbolic meal of milk and honey, the whole of the rite being normally presided over by the bishop, with Easter and Pentecost as the proper seasons for baptism in the early Christian period, though in case of necessity baptism might be administered at any time and by any male Christian.<ref name="Cross, F. L. 2005"/> The theology of baptism attained precision in the 3rd and 4th centuries.<ref name="ODWR"/>
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| - |
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| - | While it is clear that infant baptism began to be widely practiced by at least the third century,<ref name="ReferenceA">Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Infant Baptism''</ref> the origins of the practice are controversial. Some believe that the apostolic church practiced infant baptism, arguing that the mention of the baptism of households in the [[Acts of the Apostles]] must have included infants.<ref>[http://www.britishreformedfellowship.org.uk/articles/householdbaptisms.pdf Gregg Strawbridge, Ph.D.]; [http://www.apuritansmind.com/Baptism/CalvinInfantBaptism.htm#1 John Calvin, ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'']; [http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article7067.asp Jordan Bajis]; [http://paedobaptism.com/chapell.htm Bryan Chapell]; [http://www.wordmp3.com/gs/baptism.htm#III Gregg Strawbridge (response to objections)]</ref> In the second century, [[Irenaeus]] may have referred to it,<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>"He (Jesus) came to save all through means of Himself — all, I say, who through Him are born again to God and children, infants, and boys, and youths, and old men" ([http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iii.xxiii.html ''Adversus Haereses'', ii, 22, 4])</ref><ref>Paul King Jewett, ''Infant Baptism and the Covenant of Grace'', (Eerdmans 1978), page 127.</ref>
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| - |
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| - | The third century evidence is clearer, with both [[Origen]]<ref>''[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101602347 Homilies on Leviticus]'' 8.3.11; ''Commentary on Romans'' 5.9; and ''[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=88940787 Homily on Luke 14.5]''</ref> and [[Cyprian]] advocating the practice. [[Tertullian]] refers to the practice (and that sponsors would speak on behalf of the children), but argues against it, on the grounds that baptism should be postponed until after marriage.<ref>"The delay of baptism is preferable; principally, however, in the case of little children. For why is it necessary ... that the sponsors likewise should be thrust into danger? ... For no less cause must the unwedded also be deferred - in whom the ground of temptation is prepared, alike in such as never were wedded by means of their maturity, and in the widowed by means of their freedom - until they either marry, or else be more fully strengthened for continence" (''[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-03/anf03-49.htm#P11705_3290478 On Baptism]'' 18).</ref>
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| - |
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| - | Interpretation of the baptismal practices of the early church is important to groups such as [[Baptists]] and [[Anabaptists]], who believe that infant baptism was a later development.
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| - |
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| - | ====Eucharist====
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| - |
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| - | Early Christians, as part of the Lord's supper, consecrated bread and wine which became the Body and Blood of Christ. Where pagans would sacrifice animals for religious reasons, Christians would perform the Eucharist, or unbloody re-presentation of the sacrifice of Christ.
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| - |
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| - | ====Holy orders====
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| - |
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| - | The early church featured two or three levels of clergy, overseers (bishops), elders (presbyters, perhaps interchangeable with bishops), and deacons (assistants). By the year 200, only bishops had the authority to ordain priests.
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| - |
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| - | ====Imposition of hands====
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| - | {{Seealso|Laying on of hands}}
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| - | After baptism, the officiating Apostle or priest would lay hands on the subject's head to introduce the Holy Spirit into the believer.
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| - |
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| - | ====Penance====
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| - | By the third century, a system of public penance served as a "second baptism": the sinner, either voluntarily or under threat of excommunication, would undergo penance for a period whose length depended on the gravity of the sin, and which involved a rigorous course of fasting, prayer, and almsgiving, during which the penitent was excluded from the Eucharist.<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Penance''</ref>
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| - |
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| - | ===Worship===
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| - |
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| - | [[Image:Agape feast 03.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Fresco]] of a meal<ref>The word "Agape" in the inscription has led some to interpret the scene as that of an Agape feast. However, the phrase within which the word appears is "Agape misce nobis" (Agape, mix for us, i.e. prepare the wine for us), making it more likely that Agape is the name of the woman holding the cup. A very similar fresco and inscription elsewhere in the same catacomb has, in exactly the same position within the fresco, the words "Misce mi Irene" (Mix for me, Irene). A reproduction of this other fresco can be seen at [http://www.hochfeiler.it/centocelle/parco/pietrestoria/catacombe.html Catacombe dei Ss. Marcellino e Pietro], where it is accompanied by the explanation (in Italian) "One of the most frequently recurring scenes in the paintings is that of the banquet, generally interpreted as a symbolic representation of the joys of the afterlife, but in which it may be possible to discern a realistic presentation of the agapae, the funeral banquets held to commemorate the dead person." Agape, like Irene, may thus be the name of the person buried where the fresco was painted.</ref> at a tomb in the [[Catacombs of Rome|Catacomb]] of Saints [[Marcellinus and Peter]], [[Via Labicana]], [[Rome]]]]
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| - | The first worship services were liturgical gatherings, which followed essentially a "Christianized" synagogue liturgical framework, and met in sections of homes quartered off especially for worship. Christians considered each other to be brothers and sisters, each contributing their respective gifts to the community. Gatherings featured hymns, prescribed prayers, and readings, especially from the scriptures (Old Testament). The first thirty to sixty years would not have known the writings of the new covenant as they had not yet been written, Christ's teachings being transmitted through the liturgy, its hymns and prayers and through oral Tradition. Eventually, once they had become known, Paul's epistles and later the gospels and other texts were read during the initial liturgical services. The Lord's Supper comprised a communal meal with prayers in memory of Jesus. Services were known as [[agape feast]]s or love feasts.
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| - |
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| - | Second century sources, such as the [[Didache]], specify that the bread and wine of the Eucharist are for the baptized only. In his ''[[First Apology]]'', a letter of defense written to Roman emperor, [[Antonius Pius]], 161-180, Justin described a newly baptized member of the community sharing in the bread and wine of the [[Eucharist]], which was restricted to the baptized.<ref>...after we have thus washed him who has been convinced (converted to Christianity) and has assented to our teaching, we bring him to the place where those who are called brethren are assembled, in order that we may offer hearty prayers in common for ourselves and for the baptized person, ...so that we may be saved with an everlasting salvation. Having ended the prayers, we salute one another with a kiss. There is then brought to the president of the brethren bread and a cup of wine mixed with water; and he taking them, gives praise and glory to the Father of the universe, through the name of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, and offers thanks at considerable length for our being counted worthy to receive these things at His hands. And when he has concluded the prayers and thanksgivings, all the people present express their assent by saying Amen. ... And when the president has given thanks, and all the people have expressed their assent, those who are called by us deacons give to each of those present to partake of the bread and wine mixed with water over which the thanksgiving was pronounced, and to those who are absent they carry away a portion....And this food is called among us Eucharistia or [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. ... we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh. For the apostles, in the memoirs composed by them, which are called Gospels, have thus delivered unto us what was enjoined upon them; that Jesus took bread, and when He had given thanks, said, "This do ye in remembrance of Me, this is My body;" and that, after the same manner, having taken the cup and given thanks, He said, "This is My blood;" and gave it to them alone. ''[http://mb-soft.com/believe/txv/martyr1.htm The First Apology of Justin]''. </ref>
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| - |
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| - | Despite Ignatius' rejection of ''Judaizing'' (see above), Christianity continued many of the patterns of Judaism, adapting to Christian use [[synagogue]] liturgical worship, prayer, use of Sacred Scripture, a priesthood, a [[liturgical calendar|religious calendar]] commemorating on certain days each year certain events and/or beliefs, use of music in worship, giving material support to the religious leadership, and practices such as [[fasting]] and [[almsgiving]] and [[baptism]].
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| - |
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| - | Christians adopted as their Bible the Greek translation of the Jewish Scriptures known as the Septuagint and later also canonized the books of the New Testament. There are however many phrases which appear to be quotations and other statements of fact, in the [[Ante-Nicene Fathers|early church fathers]], which cannot be found in the Bible as we know it. For example in Clement's First Letter he states that Paul "reached the limits of the West", and also appears to quote a variant form of Ezek 33.
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| - |
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| - | At worship, early Christians greeted each other with a [[holy kiss]]. Church leaders restricted the practice to keep the worshipers from taking pleasure in it, such as specifying that the lips be closed.
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| - |
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| - | Many practices which later became characteristic of Christian worship had not yet developed. Singing was generally without instrumentation and was normally in unison. Many Christians had lost their lives rather than offer a mere pinch of incense to the emperor as to a god, and so the use of incense was strongly frowned upon even in Christian worship. These practices and others, such as the use of elaborate vestments and grand buildings, became popular only once the [[Peace of the Church]] changed the political situation and the growing prosperity of worshippers made them possible.
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| - |
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| - | ===Church Community===
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| - |
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| - | Christians proclaimed a [[Christianity and Judaism#Love|God of love]] who enjoined them to share a [[Agape|higher love]] with one another. Some interpreted the Old Testament as revealing primarily a God of justice, whereas the New Testament, particularly the letters of Paul and the Gospel of John, revealed a more loving God. Parallels are found in [[Pharisees|Pharisaic]] and Rabbinic Judaism. Paul of Tarsus is represented in {{bibleverse||Acts|17:22-33}} as equating the [[Unknown God]] of the Greeks as revealed in the Christian God. Early Christian communities welcomed everyone, including slaves and women, who were generally shunned in [[Greco-Roman]] culture, but there were other exceptions, such as in [[Epicureanism]].
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| - |
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| - | ===Organization===
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| - | Christian groups were first organized loosely. In Paul's time, there were no precisely delineated functions for bishops, elders, and deacons.<ref name ="Harris"/> A Church hierarchy, however, seems to have developed by the early second century<ref name ="Harris"/> (see [[Pastoral Epistles]], ''c'' 90 - 140<ref name="Harris"/>). These structures were certainly formalized well before the end of the Early Christian period, which concluded with the [[Edict of Milan|legalization of Christianity]] by [[Constantine I|Constantine]]'s [[Edict of Milan]] in 313 and the holding of the [[First Council of Nicea]] in 325.
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| - |
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| - | Some first-century Christian writings include reference to overseers ("[[bishop]]s") and deacons, though these may have been informal leadership roles rather than formal positions. The [[Didache]] (dated by most scholars to the early second century),<ref>[[Bruce Metzger]] Metzger, Bruce. The canon of the New Testament. 1997</ref>) speaks of "appointing for yourself bishops and deacons" and also speaks about teachers and [[prophets]] and [[false prophet]]s. Bishops were defined as spiritual authorities over geographical areas.
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| - | By the end of the early Christian period, the church of the Roman Empire had hundreds of bishops, some of them (those of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and, it seems, the chief bishops of other provinces) holding some form of jurisdiction over others.<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.vii.vi.viii.html Canon VI] of the [[First Council of Nicea]], which closes the period under consideration in this article, reads: "Let the ancient customs in Egypt, Libya and Pentapolis prevail, that the Bishop of Alexandria have jurisdiction in all these, since the like is customary for the Bishop of Rome also. Likewise in Antioch and the other provinces, let the Churches retain their privileges. And this is to be universally understood, that if any one be made bishop without the consent of the Metropolitan, the great Synod has declared that such a man ought not to be a bishop ..." As can be seen, the title of "[[Patriarch]]", later applied to some of these bishops, was not used by the Council: "Nobody can maintain that the bishops of Antioch and Alexandria were called patriarchs then, or that the jurisdiction they had then was co-extensive with what they had afterward, when they were so called" (ffoulkes, ''Dictionary of Christian Antiquities'', quoted in [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.vii.vi.viii.html Volume XIV] of Philip Schaff's ''The Seven Ecumenical Councils'').</ref>
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| - | Jerusalem was an important church center up to 135, for example see the [[Council of Jerusalem]] and the section on Jerusalem below, and it became significant again in the post-Nicene era. Some believe Rome was recognized as the first city of the church, Alexandria second, and then Antioch, see also [[Papal supremacy]]; this belief grew into one of the primary causes of the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] and is still disputed today by the Orthodox and Protestants. When the city of Constantinople was founded (330), this too became an important Christian centre within the empire, since the emperor resided there and made it his [[New Rome]]. Constantinople (Byzantium) is generally associated with the [[Byzantine Empire]].
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| - | ===Monasticism===
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| - | Christian monasticism started in Egypt. The first monks were hermits ([[eremetic]] monks). By the end of the early Christian era, Saint [[Pachomius]] was organizing his followers into a community and founding the tradition of monasticism in community ([[cenobitic]] monks).
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| - | ==Interaction with Greco-Roman and Jewish cultures==
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| - | [[Pagan influences on Christianity]]
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| - | The land in which Christianity began and through which it spread had been both [[Hellenized]] (after [[Alexander the Great]]) and [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanized]] (with the rise of the [[Roman Empire]]). Early church writings were in Greek, even those originating in Rome, as Greek was the international language, ''[[lingua franca]]'', of the day (similar to English in the early 21st century) and was widely spoken even in Rome.
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| - | Languages often presume features of the culture of their native speakers. For instance, the concept represented by the Greek word ''psyche'', that of the soul, was often understood as immaterial in Greek writers, who also discussed whether the soul was immortal or not. The writers of the New Testament, like the Jewish translators of the Old Testament ([[Septuagint]]), used this word to render the Hebrew ''nephesh''. Christianity and some forms of Judaism believe in bodily resurrection. Judaism later rejected the Septuagint because of its divergence from what had become the accepted Hebrew text and also because of the use of the Septuagint by Christians.<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1035&letter=B#3078 Jewish Encyclopedia: Bible Translations: Aquila]: "Two things, however, rendered the Septuagint unwelcome in the long run to the Jews. Its divergence from the accepted text (afterward called the [[Masoretic]]) was too evident; and it therefore could not serve as a basis for theological discussion or for homiletic interpretation. This distrust was accentuated by the fact that it had been adopted as Sacred Scripture by the new faith. A revision in the sense of the canonical Jewish text was necessary. This revision was made by a [[proselyte]], [[Aquila of Sinope|Aquila]], who lived during the reign of Hadrian (117-138)."</ref> Parallels to this exist in Christian history, where Greek, Latin or 16th century English are felt to be "proper" expressions of the scriptures, or of [[liturgy]].
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| - | In early Christianity, [[Koine Greek]], the most widely spoken language in the Roman empire of the time, the language also in which Alexandrian Jews such as [[Philo]] wrote their works, was naturally the language most used in Christian writings. (Other less widely used languages were not excluded: [[Latin]], for instance, was used by writers such as [[Tertullian]] and [[Marcus Minucius Felix]] and [[Syriac]] by [[Syriac Christianity]].) Regarding issues like polytheism, Christianity stood with Judaism against the background pagan culture, being staunchly monotheistic. Early Christianity thus found itself, like Judaism before it, in conflict with the prevailing Greco-Roman culture, where polytheistic theology was not simply an abstraction, but influenced social customs at many levels. Banquets in honour of gods were a common occurrence, legal codes and international diplomacy depended on gods as witnesses and the ultimate court of appeal on justice. Christians were considered atheists, because they refused to honour the pagan gods.<ref> "[http://www.laudemont.org/index.html?MainFrame=http://www.laudemont.org/a-witec.htm Worship in the Early Church]", Richard C. Leonard, Laudemont Ministries 1997.</ref> In some cases, public opinion was against Christianity as antisocial (refusing to eat at pagan banquets) and immoral (unaccountable to the moral ethos couched in polytheistic terms). [[Tacitus]] recorded some of his impressions in 109: "a class hated for their abominations", "a most mischievous superstition", guilty of "hatred against mankind".<ref>[http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/annals.11.xv.html ''Annals'' XV, 44].</ref> Christians were also accused of cannibalism (perhaps a reference to the [[Eucharist]]) and incest (perhaps a reference to the biblical prohibition of marriage outside the faith).
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| - | === Persecution ===
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| - | {{seealso|Persecution of early Christians by the Jews|Persecution of early Christians by the Romans}}
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| - | Christians were persecuted on an irregular basis in Rome. In his ''[[On the Life of the Caesars]]'' [[Suetonius]] (ca. 69/75 - after 130) wrote of the Emperor [[Claudius]] that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from Rome."<ref>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html The Life of Claudius, chapter 25]</ref> The similarity between the name "Chrestus" and "Christus" (Latin for "Christ")<ref>Confusion of the two names is witnessed to as late as the end of the second century: in 197, [[Tertullian]] commented that those who attacked the Christians commonly mispronounced the name as "Chrestian" ([http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.iv.viii.i.iii.html ''Ad Nationes'', book I, chapter III]).</ref> and the tradition witnessed to in the [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=352&letter=R&search=Sejanus#1006 Jewish Encyclopedia] that Claudius took this action because of dissensions "regarding the [[Jewish messianism|advent of the Messiah]]"<ref>"In 49-50, in consequence of dissensions among them regarding the advent of the Messiah, (the Jews) were forbidden to hold religious services. The leaders in the controversy, and many others of the Jewish citizens, left the city."</ref> have led to the supposition that this is a reference to the presence of Christians among the Jews in Rome.<ref>[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/suetonius.html Early Christian Writings: Information on Suetonius]</ref> The common Greek name of Chrestus may have been that of a Jewish agitator in Rome rather than a reference to Christ.<ref>H. Dixon Slingerland, Claudian Policymaking and the Early Imperial Repression of Judaism at Rome. South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism (1997) 89-150</ref> Claudius's measure is dated to 49, and {{bibleverse||Acts|18:1-3}} relates that, when [[Paul of Tarsus]] arrived in [[Corinth]], probably in the following year, a Jewish Christian couple, [[Priscilla and Aquila]], had arrived there shortly before ({{polytonic|προσφάτως}}) as a result of Claudius's expulsion of "all Jews" from Rome, a phrase that suggests that the Emperor's action was directed against Jews in general, and not against the Christian Jews in particular.
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| - | In the year 64, the Christians (or Chrestians<ref>In the earliest extant manuscript containing ''Annales'' 15:44, the second Medicean, the ''e'' in "Chrestianos", Chrestians, has been changed into an ''i''; cf. Gerd Theißen, Annette Merz, ''Der historische Jesus: ein Lehrbuch'', 2001, p. 89. While the reading ''Christianos'', Christians, is therefore doubtful, there is no doubt about the manuscript's spelling of the word ''Christus'' which follows immediately: "Nero subdidit reos et quaesitissimis poenis adfecit quos per flagitia invisos vulgus ''Chrestianos/Christianos'' appellabat. ''auctor nominis eius Christus'' Tiberio imperitante per procuratorem Pontium Pilatum supplicio adfectus erat; repressaque in praesens exitiabilis superstitio rursum erumpebat, non modo per Iudaeam, originem eius mali, sed per urbem etiam quo cuncta undique atrocia aut pudenda confluunt celebranturque (Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called ''Chrestians/Christians'' by the populace. ''Christus, from whom the name had its origin'', suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judæa, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular).</ref>), specified by this name in the account written later by the Roman historian [[Tacitus]] (died c. 117), were blamed by [[Nero]] as a [[scapegoat]] for the [[Great Fire of Rome]] in that year. He probably chose them as a new and secretive cult, mistrusted by the people: Tacitus called Christianity a "deadly superstition"; but he also noted that Nero's persecution of the Christians was so harsh that the inhabitants of Rome resented its cruelty.<ref>Stambaugh (1986). Pg 164-165.</ref><ref>Francis (1997). Pg 80.</ref>
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| - | Christians also suffered persecutions under the reigns of [[Domitian]] and [[Trajan]]. Persecutions continued intermittently through the second century. Even during periods between organized persecutions, Christians were still sporadically subject to trial and condemnation. After the late second century relative calm held in Rome. The reign of the [[Severan dynasty|Severi emperors]] is particularly noted as not only tolerant of the various religions in Rome, but actively interested in them. [[Alexander Severus]] is said to have had a shrine in his palace with an icon of Christ.<ref>Stambaugh (1986). Pg 165.</ref> The persecutions peaked with the [[Diocletian Persecution]] of 303-312.
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| - | ====Martyrdom====
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| - | Martyrdom was considered equivalent to baptism, a "baptism of blood."<ref name="ReferenceB">"martyr." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Martyrs were held to be especially inspired by the Holy Spirit, and their utterances were treasured.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> From the end of the 2nd century, the anniversary of a martyr's death as a kept as a feast at the tomb, and churches were sometimes built at these sites.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Martyrs were venerated as intercessors, and their relics were sought after.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
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| - | During persecutions, Christians who capitulated, some to the point of apostasy, and were termed "lapsi" (Latin: fallen).<ref>"lapsi." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> and sacrificed to Caesar. Under the Decian persecution, Christians who obtained false documents asserting that they had sacrificed to the pagan idols were termed libellatici.<ref name="ReferenceC">"libellatici." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> While this practice was condemned by church authorities, libellatici were treated better than those who had actually sacrificed ("sacrificati").<ref name="ReferenceC"/> In Africa during the persecution under Diocletian, Christians who surrendered Scriptures to the authorities were termed traditors.<ref>"traditor." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> The Novantianist and Donatist schisms arose when the schismatics insisted on being less generous in allowing lapsi back into the Church.
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| - | ====Christian reactions====
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| - | In response to persecution, Christianity castigated the Roman Empire, depicting Rome itself as [[Babylon]] (the ancient city depicted in the Bible as morally corrupt). In the second century, Christians responded to persecution by teaching that all those who had had a chance to accept Christ but hadn't would be punished forever.<ref name="CC"/> All those who had come before Christ were said to suffer the same fate (sometimes excepting [[Socrates]]).<ref name="CC"/>
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| - | ==Major centres==
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| - | Early Christianity spread from city to city in the Hellenized Roman Empire and beyond.
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| - | ===Within the Roman Empire===
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| - | ====Jerusalem====
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| - | [[Image:Israel 5 010.jpg Via Dolorosa- Walk in Jerusalem, with Jesus Christ-Actor and Press.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Reenacting the [[Stations of the Cross]] in [[Jerusalem]] on the [[Via Dolorosa]] from the [[Lions' Gate]] to the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]].]]
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| - | [[Image:Golgotha cross-section.svg|thumb|200px|right|A diagram of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre based on a German documentary, claimed to be the site of [[Calvary]] and the [[Tomb of Jesus]].]]
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| - | [[Image:5029-20080122-jerusalem-mt-olives-ascension-rock.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Ascension Rock'' on the [[Mount of Olives]], claimed to bear the imprint of Jesus' right foot.]]
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| - | [[Image:JamesOssuary-1-.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The [[James ossuary]] was on display at the [[Royal Ontario Museum]] from November 15, 2002 to January 5, 2003. The [[Israel Antiquities Authority]] assess it as a modern forgery, while the [[Biblical Archaeology Review]] has continued to defend it.]]
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| - | :''See also: [[Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem#Bishops of Jerusalem|Early Bishops of Jerusalem]] and [[Acts of the Apostles]]'' and [[Liturgy of St James]] and [[History of Palestine#Roman Period 63 BCE.E2.80.93330 CE|History of Palestine in the Roman Period]] and [[Jerusalem in Christianity]] and [[Apostolic Age]].
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| - | Jerusalem had been [[King David]]'s capital for his [[United Monarchy]] (''c'' 1000 BC) of the [[Promised Land]], and the site of the [[Israelites]] [[First Temple]], erected by [[King Solomon]].<ref name="Cross2005 Jerusalem">"Jerusalem." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> It was also the capital of the [[Maccabees|Maccabean Kingdom]] (164 BC - 63 BC) and site of the [[Second Temple]]. Jesus and his followers had traveled there from [[Galilee]], c. 33 AD, at which time the city was under Roman occupation as part of [[Iudaea province]] (6 AD - 132 AD). There he was [[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucified]], and there he had [[Resurrection appearances of Jesus|reportedly risen]] and then [[Ascension of Jesus|ascended to heaven]] with a [[Second Coming|prophecy to return]].
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| - | Jerusalem was the first center of the church, according to the [[Book of Acts]]. The apostles lived and taught there for some time after [[Pentecost]].<ref name="Cross2005 Jerusalem" /> [[James the Just|Jesus' brother James]] was a leader in the church, and his other [[Desposyni|kinsman]] likely held leadership positions in the surrounding area.<ref name="Cross2005 Jerusalem" /> Circa 50, Barnabas and Paul went to Jerusalem to meet with the "pillars of the church"<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08280a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: St. James the Less]: "Then we lose sight of James till St. Paul, three years after his conversion (A.D. 37), went up to Jerusalem. ... On the same occasion, the "pillars" of the Church, James, Peter, and John "gave to me (Paul) and Barnabas the right hands of fellowship; that we should go unto the Gentiles, and they unto the circumcision" ({{bibleverse||Galatians|2:9}})."</ref>: James, Peter, and John. Later called the [[Council of Jerusalem]], this meeting, among other things, confirmed the legitimacy of the mission of Barnabas and Paul to the [[gentiles]], and the gentile converts' freedom from most [[Halakha|Jewish law]], especially [[Circumcision controversy in early Christianity|circumcision]], which was repulsive to the [[Hellenization|Hellenic]] mind<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=514&letter=C&search=circumcision#2 Jewish Encyclopedia: Circumcision: In Apocryphal and Rabbinical Literature]: "Contact with Grecian life, especially at the games of the arena [which involved nudity], made this distinction obnoxious to the Hellenists, or antinationalists; and the consequence was their attempt to appear like the Greeks by [[epispasm]] ("making themselves foreskins"; I Macc. i. 15; Josephus, "Ant." xii. 5, § 1; Assumptio Mosis, viii.; I Cor. vii. 18; , Tosef., Shab. xv. 9; Yeb. 72a, b; Yer. Peah i. 16b; Yeb. viii. 9a). All the more did the law-observing Jews defy the edict of [[Antiochus Epiphanes]] prohibiting circumcision (I Macc. i. 48, 60; ii. 46); and the Jewish women showed their loyalty to the Law, even at the risk of their lives, by themselves circumcising their sons."; {{cite journal| last = Hodges| first = Frederick, M.| year = 2001| title = The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos, Circumcision, Foreskin Restoration, and the Kynodesme| journal = The Bulletin of the History of Medicine| volume = 75| issue = Fall 2001| pages = 375–405| url = http://www.cirp.org/library/history/hodges2/| format = PDF| accessdate = 2007-07-24| doi = 10.1353/bhm.2001.0119}}</ref>. Thus, the [[Apostolic Decree]] ({{bibleverse||Acts|15:19-21}}) may be the first act of differentiation of the Church from its Jewish roots<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=222&letter=B&search=Baptism Jewish Encyclopedia: Baptism]: "According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a proselyte to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems," 1898, p. 70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the imposition of hands, which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. Anointing with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition."</ref>, see also [[List of events in early Christianity]]. In roughly the same time period Rabbinic Judaism made their [[Brit milah|circumcision requirement]] even stricter.<ref>"peri'ah", (Shab. xxx. 6)</ref>
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| - | When Peter left Jerusalem after Herod [[Agrippa I]] tried to kill him, James appears as the principal authority.<ref name="Cross2005 StJames">"James, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Church writers would later label him the church's bishop.<ref name="Cross2005 StJames" /> A second-century church historian, [[Hegesippus]], wrote that the [[Sanhedrin]] martyred him in 62.<ref name="Cross2005 StJames" />
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| - | In 66, the [[First Jewish Revolt|Jews revolted against Rome]].<ref name="Cross2005 Jerusalem" /> Rome besieged Jerusalem for four years, and the city fell in 70.<ref name="Cross2005 Jerusalem" /> The city was destroyed, including the Temple but not the [[Temple Mount]], and the population was mostly killed or removed.<ref name="Cross2005 Jerusalem" /> A scattered population survived.<ref name="Cross2005 Jerusalem" /> The [[Council of Jamnia|Sanhedrin relocated to Jamnia]]<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=711&letter=A&search=Academy%20of%20Jabneh Jewish Encyclopedia: Academies in Palestine]</ref>. Prophecies of the Temple's destruction are found in the [[synoptics]].<ref name="Harris"/>
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| - | In the second century, [[Hadrian]] rebuilt Jerusalem as [[Aelia Capitolina]],<ref>It was still known as Aelia at the time of the First Council of Nicaea, which marks the end of the Early Christianity period ([http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.vii.vi.x.html Canon VII of the First Council of Nicaea]).</ref> erecting statues of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] and himself on the site of the former Jewish Temple, the [[Temple Mount]]. [[Bar Kokhba revolt|Bar Cochba led an unsuccessful revolt as a Messiah]], but Christians refused to acknowledge him as such. When Bar Cochba was defeated, Hadrian barred Jews from the city, except for [[Tisha B'Av]], thus the subsequent Jerusalem bishops were gentiles (literally "uncircumcised") for the first time.<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.ix.v.html Eusebius' ''History of the Church'' Book IV, chapter V], verses 3-4</ref>
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| - | The significance of Jerusalem to Christians entered a period of decline, but resumed again with the [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrimage]] of [[Helena (Empress)|Helena]] (the mother of ''Constantine the Great'') to the [[Holy Land]] c. 326–28. Helena is remember as the ''[[Patron Saint]] of [[Archaeology|Archaeologists]]'' and (according to the church historian [[Socrates of Constantinople]]<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.ii.iv.xvii.html Socrates' ''Church History'' at CCEL.org: Book I, Chapter XVII: ''The Emperor’s Mother Helena having come to Jerusalem, searches for and finds the Cross of Christ, and builds a Church.'']</ref>) claimed to have found the [[True Cross|''Cross of Christ'']].
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| - | ====Antioch====
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| - | {{seealso|School of Antioch|Bishop of Antioch}}
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| - | [[Antioch]], the third-most important city of the Roman Empire,<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Antioch''</ref> then part of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria province]], today [[Antakya]], Turkey, was where Christians were first so-called<ref>{{bibleverse||Acts|11:26}}</ref> and also the location of the [[Incident at Antioch]]. It was the site of an early church, traditionally said to be founded by Peter who is considered the [[Bishop of Antioch|first bishop]]. The Gospel of Matthew may have been written there. The church father [[Ignatius of Antioch]] was its third bishop. The School of Antioch, founded in 270, was one of two major centers of early church learning. The [[Curetonian Gospels]] and the [[Syriac Sinaiticus]] are two early (pre-[[Peshitta]]) New Testament text types associated with Syrian Christianity. It was one of the three whose bishops were recognized at the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325) as exercising jurisdiction over the adjoining territories.<ref name>"Their jurisdiction extended over the adjoining territories ... The earliest bishops exercising such powers... were those of Rome (over the whole or part of Italy), Alexandria (over Egypt and Libya), and Antioch (over large parts of Asia Minor). These three were recognized by the Council of Nicaea (325)." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''patriarch (ecclesiastical)''</ref>
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| - | ====Alexandria====
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| - | {{seealso|Alexandrian school|Catechetical School of Alexandria|Bishop of Alexandria}}
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| - | Established by ''Alexander the Great'', Alexandria and its famous libraries were a center of [[Hellenistic]] learning. The ''Septuagint'' translation of the Old Testament began there and the [[Alexandrian text-type]] is recognized by scholars as one of the earliest New Testament types. It had a significant Jewish population, of which [[Philo of Alexandria]] is probably its most known author.<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1171&letter=A&search=Alexandria Jewish Encyclopedia: Alexandria, Egypt— Ancient]</ref> It produced superior scripture and notable church fathers, such as Clement, Origen, and Athanasius.<ref>According to the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' article [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01299d.htm Alexandria]: "An important seaport of Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile. It was founded by Alexander the Great to replace the small borough called Racondah or Rakhotis, 331 B.C. The Ptolemies, Alexander's successors on the throne of Egypt, soon made it the intellectual and commercial metropolis of the world. Cæsar who visited it 46 B.C. left it to Queen Cleopatra, but when Octavius went there in 30 B.C. he transformed the Egyptian kingdom into a Roman province. Alexandria continued prosperous under the Roman rule but declined a little under that of Constantinople. ... Christianity was brought to Alexandria by the Evangelist [[St. Mark]]. It was made illustrious by a lineage of learned doctors such as Pantænus, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen; it has been governed by a series of [[Bishop of Alexandria|great bishops]] amongst whom Athanasius and Cyril must be mentioned."</ref> By the end of the era, Alexandria, Rome, and Antioch were accorded authority over nearby [[Metropolitan bishop|metropolitans]]. The Council of Nicaea affirmed Alexandria's traditional authority over Egypt, Libya, and [[Pentapolis (North Africa)]] (canon VI) and probably granted Alexandria the right to declare a universal date for the observance of [[Easter]]<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc3.iii.x.vi.html Philip Schaff's ''History of the Christian Church'', volume 3, section 79: "The Time of the Easter Festival"]: "...this was the second main object of the first ecumenical council in 325. The result of the transactions on this point, the particulars of which are not known to us, does not appear in the canons (probably out of consideration for the numerous Quartodecimanians), but is doubtless preserved in the two circular letters of the council itself and the emperor Constantine. [Socrates: Hist. Eccl. i. 9; Theodoret: H. E. i. 10; Eusebius: Vita Const ii. 17.]"</ref>, see also [[Easter controversy]].
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| - | ====Rome====
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| - | [[Image:Vatican City at Large.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[St. Peter's Basilica]], believed to be the [[Saint Peter's tomb|burial site of St. Peter]], seen from the [[River Tiber]]. The iconic dome dominates the skyline of [[Rome]].]]
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| - | [[Image:Roma San Paolo fuori le mura BW 1.JPG|thumb|200px|left|[[Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls]], believed to be the burial site of St. Paul.]]
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| - | :''See also: [[Papal supremacy#First phase of papal supremacy|First phase of papal supremacy]]''
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| - | [[Irenaeus of Lyons]] believed in the [[Christianity in the 2nd century|second century]] that [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]] had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed [[Pope Linus|Linus]] as succeeding [[bishop]].<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html Ireneaus Against Heresies 3.3].2: the "...Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops. ...The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate."</ref> The seat of imperial power soon became a center of church authority, grew in power decade by decade, and became (during the period of the ''Seven Ecumenical Councils'') the "head" of the church.<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.xvi.ii.html Schaff's ''Seven Ecumenical Councils: The Seventh'']: Letter to Pope Hadrian: "Therefore, O most holy Head (Caput)", "And after this, may there be no further schism and separation in the one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, of which Christ our true God is the Head."; Pope Hadrian's letter: "the holy Catholic and Apostolic Roman Church your spiritual mother ... the head of all Churches"; Canon IV: "For Peter the supreme head (ἡ κερυφαία ἀκρότης) of the Apostles"; Letter to the Emperor and Empress: "Christ our God (who is the head of the Church)".</ref> Paul's [[Epistle to the Romans]] {{bibleverse-nb|Romans||16}} (''c'' 58) attests to a large Christian community already there<ref name ="Oxford:Rome">Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Rome (early Christian)''</ref>, though he does not mention Peter. The see is traditionally said to be founded by Peter, see also [[Primacy of Simon Peter]], who had invested it with [[Apostolic Succession|apostolic authority]]. Church father [[Pope Clement I|Clement, bishop of Rome]], asserted his see's apostolic authority. However, not even by the end of the era were Rome and Alexandria, which by tradition held authority over sees outside their own province,<ref>[http://www.piar.hu/councils/ecum01.htm First Council of Nicaea,] canon VI</ref> referred to as [[patriarchates]]<ref>"Patriarch (ecclesiastical). A title dating from the 6th cent., for the bishops of the five chief sees of Christendom ... Their jurisdiction extended over the adjoining territories ... The earliest bishops exercising such powers, though not so named, were those of Rome (over the whole or part of Italy, Alexandria (over Egypt and Libya), and Antioch (over large parts of Asia Minor)" [Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Patriarch (ecclesiastical)'']. "Nobody can maintain that the bishops of Antioch and Alexandria were called patriarchs then, or that the jurisdiction they had then was co-extensive with what they had afterward, when they were so called" (ffoulkes, ''Dictionary of Christian Antiquities'', quoted in [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.vii.vi.viii.html Volume XIV] of Philip Schaff's ''The Seven Ecumenical Councils'').</ref>
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| - | [[Pope Victor I]] (189-198) was the first Latin ecclesiastical writer, but it seems that he wrote nothing but his encyclicals, which would naturally have been issued in both Latin and Greek.<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Victor I, St''</ref>
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| - | The earlier Roman bishops were all Greek-speaking, the most notable of them being [[Pope Clement I]] (c. 88-97), author of an [[Epistles of Clement|Epistle to the Church in Corinth]]; [[Pope Telesphorus]] (c. 126-136), probably the only martyr among them; [[Pope Pius I]] (c. 141-154), said by the [[Muratorian fragment]] to be the brother of the author of [[the Shepherd of Hermas]]; and [[Pope Anicetus]] (c. 155-160), who received Saint [[Polycarp]] and discussed with him the [[Easter controversy|dating of Easter]].<ref name ="Oxford:Rome" />
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| - | Greek New Testament texts were translated into Latin early on, and are classified as the [[Vetus Latina]] and [[Western text-type]].
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| - | During the second century, Christians and semi-Christians of diverse views congregated in Rome, and in the following century there were schisms connected with [[Hippolytus of Rome]] and [[Novatian]].<ref name ="Oxford:Rome" />
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| - | The Roman church survived various persecutions, and many clergy were martyred. [[Great Fire of Rome|When Rome burned in 64]], Nero blamed the Christians and persecuted them.<ref name ="Oxford:Rome" /> In the "Massacre of 258", under [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]], the emperor killed a great many Christian clergy, including [[Pope Sixtus II]] and [[Antipope Novatian]] and [[Cyprian of Carthage]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15256b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Valerian]; [http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/2_ch02.htm Schaff's History Vol 2 Chap 2] §22</ref> Persecutions, of which that which broke out under [[Diocletian]] in 303 was particularly severe, finally ended in Rome, and the West in general, with the accession of [[Maxentius]] in 306.
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| - | ====Caesarea====
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| - | [[Image:MCB-caesaria-amphitheatre.jpg|thumb|The amphitheatre at Caesarea]]
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| - | {{seealso|Caesarea Maritima#Christian hub|Bishop of Caesarea}}
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| - | Caesarea, at first ''Caesarea Maritima'', then after 133 ''Caesarea Palaestina'', was founded by [[Herod the Great]] and was the capital of [[Iudaea province]] and later ''Palaestina Prima''. It was there that Peter baptized the [[Cornelius the Centurion|centurion Cornelius]], considered the first gentile convert. Paul often visited and was imprisoned there for two years. [[Origen]] compiled his [[Hexapla]] there and it held a famous library and theological school, [[Pamphilus of Caesarea|St. Pamphilus]] was a noted scholar-priest. [[St. Gregory the Wonder-Worker]], [[St. Basil the Great]], and [[St. Jerome]] visited and studied at the library which was later destroyed, probably by the [[Sassanid Empire|Persians]] in 614 or the [[Saracens]] around 637.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03134b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Caesarea Palaestinae]</ref> The first major church historian, [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], was a bishop. [[Fenton John Anthony Hort|F. J. A. Hort]] and [[Adolf von Harnack]] have argued that the [[Nicene Creed]] originated in Caesarea. The [[Caesarean text-type]] is recognized by scholars as one of the earliest New Testament types.
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| - | ====North Africa====
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| - | [[Carthage]] gave the early church the Latin fathers Tertullian<ref>"Tertullian." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> and Cyprian.<ref>"Cyprian, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> The deserts of Egypt were home to ascetic fathers, such as Pachomius<ref>"Pachomius, St." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> and Antony.<ref>"Antony, St, of Egypt" Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> Carthage fell to [[Islam]] in 698.
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| - | ====Western Anatolia====
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| - | [[Image:Seven churches of asia.svg|thumb|right|200px|Map of ''Western Anatolia'' showing the locations of the cities housing the [[Seven Churches of Asia]] and the island of [[Patmos]].]]
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| - | {{seealso|History of Anatolia}}
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| - | The tradition of [[John the Apostle]] was strong in [[Anatolia]] (also called the [[Asia (Roman province)|Roman province of Asia]], the ''near-east'', part of modern [[Turkey]]). The gospel of John was likely written in [[Ephesus]]. According to the New Testament, the Apostle Paul was from [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]] and his missionary journeys were primarily in this region. The [[Book of Revelation]], believed to be authored by [[John of Patmos]] (a Greek island about 30 miles off the Anatolian coast), mentions [[Seven churches of Asia]]. The [[First Epistle of Peter]] ({{bibleverse-nb|1|Peter|1:1-2}}) is addressed to Anatolian cities. Of the extant letters of ''Ignatius of Antioch'' considered authentic (see [[Ignatius of Antioch#Letters]]), five of seven are to Anatolian cities. [[Smyrna]] was home to [[Polycarp]], the bishop who reportedly knew the Apostle John personally, and probably also to his student [[Irenaeus]]. [[Papias of Hierapolis]] is also believed to have been a student of John the Apostle. In the 2nd century, Anatolia was home to [[Quartodecimanism]] and [[Montanism]] and [[Melito of Sardis]] who recorded an early Christian [[Biblical canon]]. In 325, Constantine convoked the first Christian ecumenical council in [[Nicaea (city)|Nicaea]] and in 330 he moved the capital of the empire from Rome to [[Constantinople]], also called the [[Byzantine Empire]], which lasted till 1435.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01782a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Asia Minor]: Spread of Christianity in Asia Minor: "Asia Minor was certainly the first part of the Roman world to accept as a whole the principles and the spirit of the Christian religion, and it was not unnatural that the warmth of its conviction should eventually fire the neighbouring Armenia and make it, early in the fourth century, the first of the ancient states formally to accept the religion of Christ (Eusebius, Hist. Eccl., IX, viii, 2)."</ref>
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| - | ====Damascus====
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| - | [[Image:Ananias house.jpg|thumb|right|The supposed house of [[Ananias of Damascus|St. Ananias]] in [[Damascus]].]]
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| - | [[Image:Damascus-Bab Kisan.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Bab Kisan]] where St. Paul escaped from Damascus]]
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| - | {{seealso|Syriac Orthodox Church}}
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| - | According to the New Testament, the Apostle Paul was converted on the [[Road to Damascus]]. In the three accounts ({{bibleverse||Acts|9:1-20}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|22:1-22}}, {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|26:1-24}}), he is described as being led by those he was traveling with, blinded by the light, to Damascus where his sight was restored by a disciple called [[Ananias of Damascus|Ananias]] then he was [[baptized]].
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| - | ====Paphos====
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| - | {{seealso|Cypriot Orthodox Church}}
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| - | [[Image:paulspillar.jpg|thumb|right|100px|St Paul's Pillar in Paphos]]
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| - | [[Paphos]] was the capital of the island of [[Cyprus]] during the Roman years and seat of a Roman commander. In 45 A.D, apostles Paul and [[Barnabas]] came to Cyprus and reached Paphos preaching the Word of Christ, see also {{bibleverse||Acts|13:4-13}}. The apostles were persecuted by the Romans but eventually succeeded to convince the Roman commander [[Sergius Paulus]] into renouncing his old religion in favour of Christianity. Cyprus became the first state entity to become officially Christian{{Fact|date=April 2009}}. 5 years later, Barnabas returned to the Cypriot town of [[Salamis, Cyprus|Salamis]], where he became bishop and oversaw the spread of Christianity to the island.
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| - | ===Outside the Roman Empire===
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| - | Christianity was by no means confined to the Roman Empire during the early Christian period. It became the official religion of [[Armenia]] in 301 or 314,<ref>[http://www.armenianhistory.info/christianity.htm Armenian History, Chapter III]</ref> when Christianity was still illegal in the Roman Empire. The [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian church]] was founded by [[Gregory the Illuminator]]. (See [[Armenian Apostolic Church]].)
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| - | Christianity in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (ancient [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]]) extends back to the 4th century, if not earlier.<ref>"Georgia, Church of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref> The Iberian king, [[Mirian III of Iberia|Mirian III]], converted to Christianity, probably in 334.<ref>"Georgia, Church of." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</ref>
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| - | [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]], which was held by Rome from 116 to 118 and 212 to 214, but was mostly a client kingdom associated either with Rome or Persia, was an important Christian city. Shortly after 201 or even earlier, its royal house became Christian<ref name="vonHarnack">{{cite book |title=The Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries |last=von Harnack |first=Adolph |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1905 |publisher=Williams & Norgate |location= |isbn= |quote=there is no doubt that even before 190 A.D. Christianity had spread vigorously within Edessa and its surroundings and that (shortly after 201 or even earlier?) the royal house joined the church|page=293}}</ref>
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| - | The main language of the Church in this area was [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], which some, though only a minority, [[Aramaic primacy|argue]] was the original language of some books of the [[New Testament]]. (See also [[Aramaic of Jesus]].)
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| - | The missionary [[Addai]], who evangelized [[Mesopotamia]] (modern [[Iraq]]) about the middle of the second century, and became the first bishop of Edessa, was succeeded by [[Mar Aggai|Aggai]], then by Palut, who was ordained about 200 by [[Serapion of Antioch]]. Thence came to us in the second century the famous ''[[Peshitta]]'', or Syriac translation of the Old Testament; also [[Tatian]]'s ''[[Diatessaron]]'', which was compiled about 172 and in common use until St. [[Rabbula]], Bishop of Edessa (412-435), forbade its use. This arrangement of the four canonical gospels as a continuous narrative, whose original language may have been Syriac, Greek, or even Latin, circulated widely in Syriac-speaking Churches.<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Diatessaron''</ref>
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| - | Among the illustrious disciples of the School of Edessa, [[Bardesanes]] (154 - 222), a schoolfellow of Abgar IX, deserves special mention for his role in creating Christian religious poetry, and whose teaching was continued by his son Harmonius and his disciples.
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| - | The [[Didascalia Apostolorum]], originally written in Greek in the first half of the third century, was likely composed by a Jewish convert in northern Syria.<ref>Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article ''Didascalia Apostolorum''</ref>
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| - | A Christian council was held at Edessa as early as 197.<ref>[[Eusebius of Caesarea]], ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Historia Ecclesiastica]]'', V, 23</ref> In 201 the city was devastated by a great flood, and the Christian church was destroyed.<ref>''Chronicon Edessenum'', ad. an. 201</ref>. In 232 the relics of the Apostle [[Thomas (apostle)|St. Thomas]] were brought from [[India]], on which occasion his Syriac Acts were written. Under Roman domination many martyrs suffered at Edessa: Sts. Scharbîl and Barsamya, under [[Decius]]; Sts. Gûrja, Schâmôna, Habib, and others under [[Diocletian]]. In the meanwhile Christian priests from Edessa had evangelized Eastern Mesopotamia and [[Iran|Persia]], and established the first Churches in the kingdom of the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]]s.<ref>[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v5f5/v5f5a018.html Encyclopedia Iranica: Christianity]</ref> Atillâtiâ, Bishop of Edessa, assisted at the First Council of Nicaea (325).
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| - | By the time that Edessa was incorporated into the [[Persian Empire]] in 258, the city of [[Arbil|Arbela]], situated on the [[Tigris]] in what is now [[Iraq]], had taken on more and more the role that Edessa had played in the early years, as a centre from which Christianity spread to the rest of the Persian Empire.<ref name=CofE>[http://www.oxuscom.com/Church_of_the_East.pdf Mark Dickens: The Church of the East]</ref> [[Bardaisan]], writing about 196, speaks of Christians throughout [[Medea|Media]], [[Parthia]] and [[Bactria]] (modern-day [[Afghanistan]])<ref>"We are Christians by the one name of the Messiah. As regards our customs our brethren abstain from everything that is contrary to their profession.... Parthian Christians do not take two wives.... Our Bactrian sisters do not practice promiscuity with strangers. Persians do not take their daughters to wife. Medes do not desert their dying relations or bury them alive. Christians in Edessa do not kill their wives or sisters who commit fornication but keep them apart and commit them to the judgement of God. Christians in Hatra do not stone thieves" (quoted in [http://www.oxuscom.com/Church_of_the_East.pdf Mark Dickens: The Church of the East]).</ref> and, according to [[Tertullian]] (c.160-230), there were already a number of bishoprics within the Persian Empire by 220.<ref name=CofE/> By 315, the bishop of [[Seleucia]]-[[Ctesiphon]] had assumed the title "[[Catholicos]]".<ref name=CofE/> By this time, neither Edessa nor Arbela was the centre of the Church of the East anymore; ecclesiastical authority had moved east to the heart of the Persian Empire.<ref name=CofE/> The twin cities of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, well-situated on the main trade routes between East and West, became, in the words of John Stewart, "a magnificent centre for the missionary church that was entering on its great task of carrying the gospel to the far east."<ref>John Stewart, Nestorian Missionary Enterprise (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1928)</ref>
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| - | When Constantine converted to Christianity, the Persian Empire, suspecting a new "enemy within," became violently anti-Christian. Within a few years, [[Shapur II]] (309-379) inaugurated a twenty-year long persecution of the church with the murder of Mar Shimun, the Catholicos of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, five bishops and 100 priests on Good Friday, 344, after the Patriarch refused to collect a double tax from the Christians to help the Persian war effort against Rome.<ref name=CofE/> See also [[Christianity in Iran]].
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| - | According to records written in the [[Ge'ez language]], see also [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], the region today known as [[Ethiopia]] converted to Judaism during the time of the biblical [[Queen of Sheba]] and [[Solomon]]. According to the fourth century western historian [[Tyrannius Rufinus|Rufinius]], it was [[Saint Frumentius|Frumentius]] who brought Christianity to Ethiopia (the city of [[Axum]]) and served as its first bishop, probably shortly after 325.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05566a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Ethiopia]</ref>
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| - | ==Legacy==
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| - | {{seealso|First seven Ecumenical Councils|Byzantine Empire}}
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| - | [[Image:Nicaea icon.jpg|thumb|[[Icon]] depicting Emperor Constantine, accompanied by the Fathers of the 325 [[First Council of Nicaea]], holding the [[Nicene Creed]] in its 381 form.]]
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| - | [[Image:Byzantinischer Mosaizist um 1000 002.jpg|thumb|Emperor Constantine presents a representation of the city of [[Constantinople]] as tribute to an enthroned Mary and baby Jesus in this church mosaic. [[Hagia Sophia|St Sophia]], c. 1000).]]
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| - | In the fourth century, Emperor Constantine (306-337) converted to Christianity<ref>He was baptized only shortly before his death ([http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2006/2006-04-03.html Bryn Mawr Classical Review]).</ref> and [[Edict of Milan|legalized it]], showing it personal favour (see [[Constantine I and Christianity]] for details). He convened at [[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]] the first of the [[ecumenical council]]s, at which the church dogmatically defined the divinity of Christ.<ref>The divinity of the Holy Spirit was defined at the [[First Council of Constantinople]].</ref> In 331 he commissioned [[Eusebius]] to deliver fifty [[Christian Bible]]s for the [[Church of Constantinople]]. [[Athanasius]] (''Apol. Const. 4''<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204.xviii.ii.iv.html Athanasius' ''Apologia Ad Constantium'' chapter 4 at CCEL]</ref>) recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constantine's son and successor [[Constans]] (337-350). Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for [[Development of the Christian Biblical canon|canon lists]], and that [[Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209|Codex Vaticanus]], [[Codex Sinaiticus|Sinaiticus]] and [[Codex Alexandrinus|Alexandrinus]] are examples of these Bibles. Together with the [[Peshitta]], these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.<ref>McDonald & Sanders, ''The Canon Debate'', pages 414-415, for all this information on Constantine and Constans.</ref> In fact, while there was a good measure of debate in the Early Church over the New Testament canon, the major writings were accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the second century,<ref>''The Cambridge History of the Bible'' (volume 1) eds. P. R. Ackroyd and C. F. Evans (Cambridge University Press, 1970) p. 308</ref> nearly two centuries before Constantine, on the occasion of the inauguration of his "New Rome" in 330,<ref>[http://historymedren.about.com/library/date/bl0511.htm 330 Constantinople inaugurated]</ref><ref>[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Constantinople 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica, s.v. Constantinople]</ref> provided this gift of copies of the Bible for the churches in the city.
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| - | Of the next six ecumenical councils, the [[First Council of Constantinople]] further defined the Trinity and the [[First Council of Ephesus|Council of Ephesus]] affirmed Mary as the [[Theotokos|Mother of God]]. They anathematized various groups, and declared heretical some early Christian writings, such as when the [[Second Council of Constantinople]] condemned certain tenets of [[Origen]].
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| - | Many recent Christian movements (e.g., [[Restorationism]], [[Hebrew Roots]], [[paleo-orthodoxy]], [[Pentacostalism]]) intentionally follow practices attributed to early Christians, such as (depending on the denomination) [[believer's baptism]], [[seventh-day Sabbath]], [[Passover (Christian holiday)|Passover]], and [[Signs and Wonders]]; these practices correspond to perceived difficulties with Christian traditions such as (respectively) [[paedobaptism]], [[first-day Sabbath]], [[Easter]], and [[cessationism]]. Such [[Restorationist]] sects consider themselves to be restoring authentic practices of the early Christian era. Some attribute to mainstream Christendom a [[Great Apostasy]] and/or [[Caesaropapism]].
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| - |
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| - | [[Image:ChristianityBranches.svg|frame|center|A schematic of [[Christian Denominations|Christian denominational]] taxonomy. The different width of the lines (thickest for "Protestantism" and thinnest for "Oriental Orthodox" and "Nestorians") is without objective significance. Protestantism in general, and not just Restorationism, claims a direct connection with Early Christianity.]]
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| - |
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| - | Since the 19th century, historians have learned much more about the early Christian community. Major texts, such as the [[Didache]] (in second-millennium copies) and the [[Gospel of Thomas]] (in two manuscripts dated as early as about 200 and 340), have been rediscovered in the last 200 years.
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| - | ===Restorationism===
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| - | [[Restorationism]]
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| - | {{Citations missing|date=July 2007}}
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| - | In the 19th century (particularly in England and America), movements classified as [[Restorationist]] took distinct form, claiming to restore the practices and doctrines of early Christianity.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sisson, Richard|title=The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia|publisher=Indiana University Press|year=2007|isbn=0253348862|page=761}}</ref> Most such movements, often only indirectly related, seek to teach a purer understanding of the [[New Testament]]. Some movements claim an actual restoration of the original church founded by Jesus Christ. Restorationists claim no genesis from Christianity as formulated at the First Council of Nicaea. They generally hold that Christian usages and beliefs not mentioned in the [[New Testament]] are later introductions, at variance with the practice and belief of the [[Apostolic Age]]. Some groups, such as [[hyperdispensationalism]], find a [[Great Apostasy]] in effect in the first or second century. Many Restorationist Christian groups are centered on [[Hebrew Roots]], use [[Hebrew (language)|Hebrew]] as a [[holy language]], use Hebrew terminology and transliterations such as "[[Elohim]]", and keep the [[seventh-day Sabbath]] and other practices associated with the Biblical-historical evidences of the early church.
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| - | ==See also==
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| - | *[[History of Christianity]]
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| - | *[[List of events in early Christianity]]
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| - | *[[Constantine I and Christianity]]
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| - | *[[Constantinian shift]]
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| - | *[[Christian Torah-submission#History of Christian Torah-submission|History of Christian Torah-submission]]
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| - | *[[Council of Jerusalem]]
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| - | *[[Proselyte]]
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| - | *[[Ante-Nicene Fathers]]
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| - | *[[Christian-Jewish reconciliation]]
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| - | *[[Early Christian art and architecture]]
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| - | *[[Christianity in the 1st century]]
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| - | *[[Christianity in the 2nd century]]
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| - | *[[Christianity in the 3rd century]]
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| - |
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| - | ==References==
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| - | {{reflist|2}}
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| - |
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| - | ==Bibliography==
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| - | * Berard, Wayne Daniel. ''When Christians Were Jews (That Is, Now)''. Cowley Publications (2006). ISBN 1561012807.
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| - | * Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro & Gargola, Daniel J & Talbert, Richard John Alexander. ''The Romans: From Village to Empire''. Oxford University Press (2004). ISBN 0195118758.
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| - | * Dauphin, C. "De l'Église de la circoncision à l'Église de la gentilité – sur une nouvelle voie hors de l'impasse". [http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/sbf/SBFla93.html ''Studium Biblicum Franciscanum. Liber Annuus XLIII''] (1993).
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| - | * Dunn, James D.G. ''Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways'', A.D. 70 to 135. Pp 33–34. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999). ISBN 0802844987.
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| - | * Ehrman, Bart D. ''Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why''. HarperCollins (2005). ISBN 0060738170.
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| - | * Esler, Phillip F. ''The Early Christian World''. Routledge (2004). ISBN 0415333121.
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| - | * Harris, Stephen L. ''Understanding the Bible''. Mayfield (1985). ISBN 087484696X.
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| - | * Hunt, Emily Jane. ''Christianity in the Second Century: The Case of Tatian''. Routledge (2003). ISBN 0415304059.
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| - | * Keck, Leander E. ''Paul and His Letters''. Fortress Press (1988). ISBN 0800623401.
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| - | * Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan. ''The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600)''. University of Chicago Press (1975). ISBN 0226653714.
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| - | * Pritz, Ray A., ''Nazarene Jewish Christianity From the End of the New Testament Period Until Its Disappearance in the Fourth Century''. Magnes Press - E.J. Brill, Jerusalem - Leiden (1988).
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| - | * Richardson, Cyril Charles. ''Early Christian Fathers''. Westminster John Knox Press (1953). ISBN 0664227473.
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| - | * Stark, Rodney.''The Rise of Christianity''. Harper Collins Pbk. Ed edition 1997. ISBN 0060677015
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| - | * Stambaugh, John E. & Balch, David L. ''The New Testament in Its Social Environment''. John Knox Press (1986). ISBN 0664250122.
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| - | * Tabor, James D. [http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/JDTABOR/ebionites.html "Ancient Judaism: Nazarenes and Ebionites"], ''The Jewish Roman World of Jesus''. Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte (1998).
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| - | * Taylor, Joan E. ''Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins''. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0198147856.
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| - | * Thiede, Carsten Peter. ''The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Jewish Origins of Christianity''. Palgrabe Macmillan (2003). ISBN 1403961433.
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| - | * Valantasis, Richard. ''The Making of the Self: Ancient and Modern Asceticism''. James Clarke & Co (2008) ISBN 9780227172810.[http://www.lutterworth.com/jamesclarke/jc/titles/makingof.htm]
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| - | * White, L. Michael. ''From Jesus to Christianity''. HarperCollins (2004). ISBN 0060526556.
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| - | * Wright, N.T. ''The New Testament and the People of God''. Fortress Press (1992). ISBN 0800626818.
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| - | * Wylen, Stephen M. ''The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction''. Paulist Press (1995). ISBN 0809136104.
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| - |
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| - | ==External links==
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| - | *[http://www.earlychristians.org/ Early Christians]
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| - | *[http://www.ebionim.org Ebionites]
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| - | *[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ Early Christian Writings]
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| - | *[http://www.ccel.org/ Christian Classics Ethereal Library]
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| - | *[http://www.earlychurchtexts.com Early Church Texts]
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| - | *[http://www.plough.com/ebooks/earlychristians.html The Early Christians in Their Own Words] (free Ebook - English or Arabic)
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| - | *[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/ Catholic Encyclopedia: The Fathers of the Church]
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| - | *[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/ PBS Frontline: The First Christians]
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| - | *[http://department.monm.edu/classics/Speel_Festschrift/sundbergJr.htm "The Old Testament of the Early Church" Revisited, Albert C. Sundberg, Jr.]
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| - | *[http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/JDTABOR/indexb.html The Jewish Roman World of Jesus]
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| - | *[http://www.sofiatopia.org/equiaeon/jesus1.htm From the Jesus-people to Early Christianity - 30 - 110 AD]
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| - | *[http://www.josemariaescriva.info/index.php?id_cat=1574&id_scat=1572 First Christians and Rome]
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| - | *[http://www.bib-arch.org/online-exclusives/oldest-church.asp Cave in Jordan Said to Have Been Used by Early Christians] Biblical Archaeology Review
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| - | *[http://sites.google.com/site/obrasdeangelfsanchezescobar/publicaciones/publicaciones-en-el-terreno-de-la-religion/a-history-of-the-early-christian-church Ángel F. Sánchez Escobar: A History of the Early Christian Church] (for the text, click on links at foot of the page)
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| - | *[http://www.publicchristianity.com/videos/earlychristians.html Professor Edwin Judge on the early Christians from the Centre for Public Christianity]
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| | [[Category:Patristics]] | | [[Category:Patristics]] |
What started as a religious movement within first century Judaism therefore became, by the end of this period, the favored religion of the Roman Empire, as well as a significant religion outside the empire.[5] According to Will Durant, the Christian Church prevailed over Paganism because it offered a much more attractive doctrine and because the church leaders addressed human needs better than their rivals.[7] The First Council of Nicaea marks the end of this era and the beginning of the period of the first seven Ecumenical Councils (325 - 787).
. According to many historians, these first followers viewed Jesus as a charismatic preacher and healer, who prophesized the imminent restoration of God's kingdom on earth.
marked by their belief in Jesus' prophecy, and other teachings of his; according to Christian theology, they more specifically believed that
Disputes over the Mosaic law generated intense controversy in early Christianity. This is particularly notable in the mid-1st century, when the circumcision controversy came to the fore. The issue was addressed at the Council of Jerusalem where the apostle Paul made an argument that circumcision was not a necessary practice, vocally supported by Peter, as documented in Acts 15. This position received widespread support and was summarized in a letter circulated in Antioch. Yet, four years after the Council of Jerusalem, Paul had to write to the Galatians about the issue, which had become a serious controversy in their region. According to Alister McGrath, a proponent of Paleo-orthodoxy, Paul considered it a great threat to his doctrine of salvation through faith and addressed the issue with great detail in Galatians 3.[19][20]
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